Chinese Rites controversy and Methylcyclopropane: Difference between pages

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[[Image:Ricci1.jpg|thumb|[[Matteo Ricci]] (left) and [[Xu Guangqi]] (徐光啟) (right) in the Chinese edition of ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' (幾何原本) published in 1607.]]
|ImageFile=Methylcyclopropanesimp.png
{{Christianity in China Portal}}
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The '''Chinese Rites controversy''' was a dispute within the [[Catholic Church]] from the 1630s to the early 18th century<ref>Pacific Rim Report No. 32, February 2004, [http://www.pacificrim.usfca.edu/research/pacrimreport/pacrimreport32.html The Chinese Rites Controversy: A Long Lasting Controversy in Sino-Western Cultural History] by Paul Rule, Ph.D.</ref> about whether [[Chinese folk religion]] rites and offerings to the [[Emperor of China|emperor]] constituted [[idolatry]]. [[Pope]] [[Clement XI]] decided in favor of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] (who argued that Chinese folk religion and offerings to the emperor were incompatible with [[Catholicism]]), which greatly reduced Catholic [[missionary]] activity in [[China]].
|IUPACName=methylcyclopropane
|OtherNames=
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| CASNo=594-11-6
| PubChem=11657
| SMILES=CC1CC1
}}
|Section2={{Chembox Properties
| Formula=C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>
| MolarMass=56.11 g/mol
| Appearance=
| Density=
| MeltingPt=
| BoilingPt=
| Solubility=
}}
|Section3={{Chembox Hazards
| MainHazards=
| FlashPt=
| Autoignition=
}}
}}


'''Methylcyclopropane''' ('''[[Carbon|C]]<sub>4</sub>[[Hydrogen|H]]<sub>8</sub>''') is the [[alkyl cycloalkane]] compound of [[methane]] and [[cyclopropane]].
It was related to larger controversies between the Dominicans and Jesuits over the adoption of local practices of other countries, such as the ascetic [[brahmin]] practices of India.


== Usage ==
[[Pope Pius XII]] modified his predecessor's decision in 1939.


It is used as functional group in [[tertiary amine]]s.
==Entry into China==
===Early adaptation to local customs===
[[Image:NicolasTrigaultInChineseCostume.jpg|thumb|The Jesuits of the [[Jesuit China missions]] made efforts to adopt Chinese customs. Here [[Nicolas Trigault]] (1577-1629) in Chinese costume, by [[Peter Paul Rubens]].]]
Unlike the American continent, which had been conquered by military force and then converted to an unmodified form of Christianity, European missionaries encountered powerful societies in Asia with a strong social structure and history, which had to be convinced rather than forced into accepting the Christian faith.<ref>Manteigne, p.177-178</ref> [[Alessandro Valignano]], Visitor of the [[Company of Jesus]] in Asia, was one of the first Jesuits to argue, in the case of [[Japan]], for an adaptation of Christian customs to the societies of Asia, through his ''Résolutions'' and ''Cérémonial''.<ref>Manteigne, p.178</ref> In China, [[Matteo Ricci]] reused the ''Cérémonial'' and adapted it the Chinese context. At one point the Jesuits even started to wear the gown of [[Buddhist]] monks, before adopting the more prestigious silk gown of [[Scholar-bureaucrats|Chinese litterati]].<ref>Manteigne, p.178</ref>


== Reactions ==
In a decree signed on 23 March 1656, [[Pope Alexander VII]] accepted practices "favorable to Chinese customs", reinforcing 1615 decrees which accepted the usage of the Chinese language in [[liturgy]], a notable exception to the contemporary Christian doctrine which forbade the use of local languages.<ref>Mantienne, p.179</ref>
Methylcyclopropane provides an extreme example of the general decrease in the stability of [[alkyl cycloalkane]]s with decreasing ring size, due to the [[Baeyer tension]]. They react in a similar way to [[alkene]]s, although they don't react with the EA (cf. [[electrophilic addition]]), but with the SN2 (cf. [[nucleophilic substitution]]) reaction mechanism. These reactions are both [[ring opening reaction]]s and [[bond cleavage]] reactions outside the ring. Two examples are the [[halogenation]] reactions


:H<sub>3</sub>C-CycProp + HBr → H<sub>3</sub>C-CHBr-CH<sub>2</sub>-CH<sub>3</sub> (ring opening)
In the 1659 instructions given by the [[Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]] (known as the ''Propaganda Fide'') to new missionaries to Asia, provisions were clearly made to the effect that adapting to local customs and respecting the habits of the countries to be evangilized was paramount: <ref>Missions, p.4</ref>


:H<sub>3</sub>C-CycProp + HBr → H<sub>3</sub>C-H + Br-CycProp (bond cleavage)
{{quote|"Do not act with [[zeal]], do not put forward any arguments to convince these peoples to change their [[rites]], their customs or their usages, except if they are evidently contrary to the religion and [[morality]]. What would be more absurd than to bring [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]] or any other European country to the Chinese? Do not bring to them our countries, but instead bring to them the [[faith]], a faith that does not reject or hurt the rites, nor the usages of any people, provided that these are not distasteful, but that instead keeps and protects them."|Extract from the 1659 Instructions, given to Mgr [[François Pallu]] and Mgr [[Lambert de la Motte]] of the [[Paris Foreign Missions Society]] by the [[Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith]].<ref>Missions, p.5. Original French: "Ne mettez aucun zèle, n'avancez aucun argument pour convaincre ces peuples de changer leurs rites, leurs coutumes et leur moeurs, à moins qu'ils ne soient évidemment contraires à la religion et à la morale. Quoi de plus absurde que de transporter chez les Chinois la france, l'Espagne, l'Italie, ou quelque autre pays d'Europe? N'introduisez pas chez eux nos pays, mais la foi, cette foi qui ne repousse ni ne blesse les rites, ni les usages d'aucun peuple, pourvu qu'ils ne soient pas détestables, mais bien au contraire veut qu'on les garde et les protège."</ref><ref>''Les Missions Etrangeres'', p.77-78</ref>}}


The latter reaction is important due to cleavage of the cyclopropyl ring in [[tertiary amine]]s.
===Reception in China===
[[Image:Jesuit astronome with Kangxi Emperor.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Kangxi]] with a Jesuit astronome. "Tapisserie de [[Beauvais]]", 1690-1705.]]
The [[Kangxi Emperor]], considered one of China's greatest, was at first friendly to the Jesuit Missionaries working in China. He was highly grateful for the services they brought to him, in the areas of [[astronomy]], [[diplomacy]] and gun manufacture.<ref>Mantienne, p.180</ref> The contribution of the Jesuits to artillery had allowed the Chinese Emperor to reconquer [[Taiwan]].<ref>'''Les Missions Etrangeres'', p.83</ref> Jesuit diplomacy, through the negotiations of [[Jean-François Gerbillon]] and [[Thomas Pereira]], had allowed him to stop [[Tsardom of Russia|Russian expansionism]] in the East through the [[Treaty of Nerchinsk]] in 1689.<ref>'''Les Missions Etrangeres'', p.83</ref> By the end of the seventeenth century, the Jesuits also had made many converts.


In 1692, Kangxi issued an edict of toleration of Christianity:


[[Category:Cycloalkanes]]
{{quote|The Europeans are very quiet; they do not excite any disturbances in the provinces, they do no harm to anyone, they commit no crimes, and their doctrine has nothing in common with that of the false sects in the empire, nor has it any tendency to excite sedition . . . We decide therefore that all temples dedicated to the Lord of heaven, in whatever place they may be found, ought to be preserved, and that it may be permitted to all who wish to worship this God to enter these temples, offer him incense, and perform the ceremonies practised according to ancient custom by the Christians. Therefore let no one henceforth offer them any opposition.<ref>S. Neill, A History of Christian Missions (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books,964), pp. 189­l90.</ref>}}


==The problem==
{{main|Jesuit China missions}}
The [[Society of Jesus]] (Jesuits) was successful in penetrating China and serving at the Imperial court (see [[Jesuit China missions]]). They impressed the Chinese with their knowledge of European [[astronomy]] and [[mechanics]], and in fact ran the Imperial Observatory.
Their accurate methods allowed the Emperor to successfully predict [[eclipse]]s, one of his ritual duties. Other Jesuits functioned as court painters. The Jesuits in turn were impressed by the Chinese Confucian elite, and adapted to that lifestyle.


{{hydrocarbon-stub}}
[[Image:LifeAndWorksOfConfucius1687.jpg|thumb|right|''Confucius Sinarum Philosophus'' ("Life and works of Confucius"), by Father [[Philippe Couplet]] and Father [[Prospero Intorcetta]], 1687.]]
[[bs:Metilciklopropan]]
The primary goal of the Jesuits was to spread Catholicism, but here they had a problem. The Chinese elite were attached to Confucianism, while [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]] were mostly practiced by the common people and lower aristocracy of this period. Despite this, all three provided the framework of both state and home life. Part of Confucian and Taoist practices involved veneration of one's ancestors.
[[pt:Metilciclopropano]]

Besides the Jesuits, other religious orders such as the [[Dominicans]], [[Franciscans]], and [[Augustins]] started missionary work in China during the 17th century, often coming from the Spanish colony of the [[Philippines]]. Contrary to the Jesuits, they refused any adaptation to local customs and wished to apply in China the same ''[[tabula rasa]]'' principle they had applied in other places,<ref>Mantienne, p.178</ref> and were horrified by the practices of the Jesuits.<ref>''Les Missions Etrangeres'', p.82</ref>

They ignited a heated controversy and brought it to [[Rome]].<ref>Mantienne, p.178-179</ref> They raised three main points of contention: <ref>Mantienne, p.178</ref>
* Determination of the Chinese word for "God" (天 ''Tian'' Heanven, 天主 ''Tian Zhu'' Lord of Heaven, or 上帝 ''[[Shangdi]]'' Lord of Above)
* Prohibition of the cult of [[Confucious]] for Christians.
* Prohibition of [[ancestor worship]] for Christians.

The Jesuits tried to argue, in Rome, that these "Chinese Rites" were social, not religious, ceremonies, and that converts should be allowed to continue to participate. (The debate was not, as is sometimes thought, about whether the liturgy could be in Chinese rather than Latin.) The Jesuits argued that Chinese folk religion and offerings to the emperor and [[Ancestor-worship|departed ancestors]] were civil in nature and therefore not incompatible with Catholicism, while the Dominicans argued the reverse.

==Pope Clement XI's decree==
[[Image:Clement XI.jpg|thumb|170px|Pope Clement XI]]
Although in later European commentary on China it has continued to be claimed that Confucianism is a "philosophy" and not a "religion" - because it does not conform to the model of western religions, Pope Clement XI made the assessment that the Confucian rituals were indeed in conflict with Christian teaching.

In 1705, the Pope sent a [[Papal Legate]] to the [[Kang Hsi]] Emperor, to communicate to him the interdiction of Chinese rites. The mission, led by [[Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon]], communicated the prohibition of Chinese rites in January 1707, but was as a result banished to [[Macao]].<ref>''Crosscurrents in the Literatures of Asia and the West'' by Alfred Owen Aldridge, Masayuki Akiyama, Yiu-Nam Leung, p. 54 [http://books.google.com/books?id=kNlU2SGJixkC&pg=PA53&dq=Artus+de+Lionne+Chinese+rites&sig=ACfU3U0Z8VCqcgJa-LeReLuz2G3O_qpMkQ#PPA54,M1]</ref><ref>Mantienne, p.180</ref>

Futher, the Pope issued the 19 March 1715 [[Papal bull]] ''Ex illa die'' which officially condemned the Chinese rites: <ref>Mantienne, p.180</ref>

{{quote|Pope Clement XI wishes to make the following facts permanently known to all the people in the world....<br><br>
I. The West calls Deus [God] the creator of Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe. Since the word Deus does not sound right in the Chinese language, the Westerners in China and Chinese converts to Catholicism have used the term "Heavenly Lord" (Tianzhu) for many years. From now on such terms as "Heaven" and "Shangdi" should not be used: Deus should be addressed as the Lord of Heaven, Earth, and everything in the universe. The tablet that bears the Chinese words "Reverence for Heaven" should not be allowed to hang inside a Catholic church and should be immediately taken down if already there.<br><br>
II. The spring and autumn worship of Confucius, together with the worship of ancestors, is not allowed among Catholic converts. It is not allowed even though the converts appear in the ritual as bystanders, because to be a bystander in this ritual is as pagan as to participate in it actively.<br><br>
III. Chinese officials and successful candidates in the metropolitan, provincial, or prefectural examinations, if they have been converted to Roman Catholicism, are not allowed to worship in Confucian temples on the first and fifteenth days of each month. The same prohibition is applicable to all the Chinese Catholics who, as officials, have recently arrived at their posts or who, as students, have recently passed the metropolitan, provincial, or prefectural examinations.<br><br>
IV. No Chinese Catholics are allowed to worship ancestors in their familial temples.<br><br>
V. Whether at home, in the cemetery, or during the time of a funeral, a Chinese Catholic is not allowed to perform the ritual of ancestor worship. He is not allowed to do so even if he is in company with non-­Christians. Such a ritual is heathen in nature regardless of the circumstances.<br><br>
Despite the above decisions, I have made it clear that other Chinese customs and traditions that can in no way be interpreted as heathen in nature should be allowed to continue among Chinese converts. The way the Chinese manage their households or govern their country should by no means be interfered with. As to exactly what customs should or should not be allowed to continue, the papal legate in China will make the necessary decisions. In the absence of the papal legate, the responsibility of making such decisions should rest with the head of the China mission and the Bishop of China. In short, customs and traditions that are not contradictory to Roman Catholicism will be allowed, while those that are clearly contradictory to it will not be tolerated under any circumstances.<ref>China in Transition, 1517-­1911, Dan. J. Li, trans. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1969), pp. 22­24.</ref>}}

In 1742 Benedict XIV reiterated in his papal bull ''Ex quo singulari'' Clement XI's decree. Benedict demanded that missionaries in China take an oath forbidding them to discuss the issue again.

==Kangxi's ban==
The Kangxi emperor disagreed with Clement's decree and banned Christian missions in China.

From Decree of Kangxi (1721):

{{quote|Reading this proclamation, I have concluded that the Westerners are petty indeed. It is impossible to reason with them because they do not understand larger issues as we understand them in China. There is not a single Westerner versed in Chinese works, and their remarks are often incredible and ridiculous. To judge from this proclamation, their religion is no different from other small, bigoted sects of Buddhism or Taoism. I have never seen a document which contains so much nonsense. From now on, Westerners should not be allowed to preach in China, to avoid further trouble.<ref>China in Transition, 1517-­1911, Dan J. Li, trans. (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1969), p. 22.</ref>}}

The actual problem was the Pope's legate appointment, as the Emperor was unwilling to tolerate the presence of a foreign authority independent of the court.

==Pope Pius XII's decision==
{{main|Pope Pius XII and the Church in China}}
The Rites controversy continued to hamper Church efforts to gain converts in China. In 1939, a few weeks after his election to the papacy, [[Pope Pius XII]] ordered the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]] to relax certain aspects of Clement XI's and [[Benedict XIV]]'s decrees:

*Catholics are permitted to be present at ceremonies in honor of Confucius in Confucian temples or in schools;
*Erection of an image of Confucius or tablet with his name on it is permitted in Catholic schools.
*Catholic magistrates and students are permitted to passively attend public ceremonies which have the appearance of superstition.
*It is licit and unobjectionable for head inclinations and other manifestations of civil observance before the deceased or their images.
*The oath on the Chinese rites, which was prescribed by Benedict XIV, is not fully in accord with recent regulations and is superfluous.<ref>S.C.Prop. Fid., 8 Dec., 1939, AAS 32-24</ref>

This meant that Chinese customs were no longer considered superstitious, but were an honourable way of esteeming one's relatives and therefore permitted by [[Catholic]] Christians. <ref>Smit 186-187</ref>. The Government of China established diplomatic relations with the [[Holy See|Vatican]] in 1943, within a short interval. The Papal degree changed the ecclesiastical situation in China in an almost revolutionary way. <ref>Smit 188</ref> As the Church began to flourish, [[Pius XII]] established a local ecclesiastical hierarchy, and, in 1946, received Archbishop, [[Thomas Tien Ken-sin]] SVD, as the first Chinese national, in the Sacred College of Cardinals. <ref>Smit 188</ref>. and later elevated him to the [[Episcopal see|See of Peking]].

==See also==
*[[History of Christian missions]]
*[[Religion in China]]
*[[Joachim Bouvet]]
*[[Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon]] (1668-1710)

==References==
*[[Hubert Jedin]], ''Kirchengeschichte'' Vol. VII, Herder Freiburg, 1988
*Jan Olav Smit, Pope Pius XII, Burns Oates & Washburne, London, Dublin, 1951
*Mantienne, Frédéric 1999 Monseigneur Pigneau de Béhaine, Editions Eglises d'Asie, 128 Rue du Bac, Paris, ISSN 12756865 ISBN 2914402201
*''Missions étrangères de Paris. 350 ans au service du Christ'' 2008 Editeurs Malesherbes Publications, Paris ISBN 9782916828107
*''Les Missions Etrangères. Trois siecles et demi d'histoire et d'aventure en Asie'' Editions Perrin, 2008, ISBN 9782262025717

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03669a.htm Catholic encyclopedia - The Church in China (includes a section about the controversy]

[[Category:History of Imperial China]]
[[Category:Jesuit history]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in Asia]]
[[Category:Religious controversies]]
[[Category:Christianity-related controversies]]
[[Category:Pope Pius XII]]

{{Link FA|no}}

[[de:Ritenstreit]]
[[es:Disputa de los Ritos]]
[[fr:Querelle des Rites]]
[[nl:Ritenstrijd]]
[[ja:典礼論争]]
[[no:Ritestriden i Kina]]
[[pt:Controvérsia dos ritos na China]]
[[zh:中国礼仪之争]]

Revision as of 20:14, 10 October 2008

Template:Chembox new

Methylcyclopropane (C4H8) is the alkyl cycloalkane compound of methane and cyclopropane.

Usage

It is used as functional group in tertiary amines.

Reactions

Methylcyclopropane provides an extreme example of the general decrease in the stability of alkyl cycloalkanes with decreasing ring size, due to the Baeyer tension. They react in a similar way to alkenes, although they don't react with the EA (cf. electrophilic addition), but with the SN2 (cf. nucleophilic substitution) reaction mechanism. These reactions are both ring opening reactions and bond cleavage reactions outside the ring. Two examples are the halogenation reactions

H3C-CycProp + HBr → H3C-CHBr-CH2-CH3 (ring opening)
H3C-CycProp + HBr → H3C-H + Br-CycProp (bond cleavage)

The latter reaction is important due to cleavage of the cyclopropyl ring in tertiary amines.


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