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'''''Xanthomonas arboricola''''' is a species of [[proteobacteria]]. This [[Plant pathology|phytopathogenic]] bacterium can cause disease in trees like ''[[Prunus]]'', [[hazelnut]] and [[walnut]].<ref name=BergeyAlpha>Garrity, George M.; Brenner, Don J.; Krieg, Noel R.; Staley, James T. (eds.) (2005). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume Two: The Proteobacteria, Part C: The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria. New York, New York: Springer. {{ISBN|978-0-387-24145-6}}.</ref>
'''''Xanthomonas arboricola''''' is a species of [[proteobacteria]]. This [[Plant pathology|phytopathogenic]] bacterium can cause disease in trees like ''[[Prunus]]'', [[hazelnut]] and [[walnut]].<ref name=BergeyAlpha>Garrity, George M.; Brenner, Don J.; Krieg, Noel R.; Staley, James T. (eds.) (2005). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume Two: The Proteobacteria, Part C: The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria. New York, New York: Springer. {{ISBN|978-0-387-24145-6}}.</ref>

== Disease Cycle ==
''Xanthomonas arboricola'' can infect all green tissue of the plant<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sacvalleyorchards.com/walnuts/diseases-walnuts/walnut-blight-management/|title=Walnut Blight Management|website=www.sacvalleyorchards.com|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-15}}</ref>. The disease cycle of ''Xanthomonas arboricola'' begins on the leaves of the infected plant where the bacteria will live in an epiphytic stage (gathering all nutrients and water from the air) until mid to late spring when sufficient rainsplash spreads the bacteria to new buds and fruits where it becomes pathogenic. With enough early spring rain, a repeating cycle can form in which infected leaves and young buds pass the disease to early season fruit and nutlets. With less rain, a late season infection of fruit and nuts will occur. After the infection of fruit and nuts in autumn, ''Xanthomonas arboricola'' will spread to dormant buds and wounds in leaves or branches and overwinter. Come early spring the ''Xanthomonas'' will once again enter an epiphytic stage on leaves emerging from previously infected dormant buds and repeat the cycle annually<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lamichhane|first=Jay Ram|title=Xanthomonas arboricolaDiseases of Stone Fruit, Almond, and Walnut Trees: Progress Toward Understanding and Management|url=https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PDIS-08-14-0831-FE|journal=Plant Disease|language=en|volume=98|issue=12|pages=1600–1610|doi=10.1094/pdis-08-14-0831-fe}}</ref>.

== Environment Impact on Disease Cycle ==
Incidence of infection can be correlated with rainfall events during the budding season of the walnut. The most important rains occurring during bud break events. This is due to the rainsplash moving inoculum from infected buds across other green tissues of the tree, most crucially to developing nuts <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lindow|first=Steven|last2=Olson|first2=William|last3=Buchner|first3=Richard|title=Colonization of Dormant Walnut Buds byXanthomonas arboricolapv.juglandisIs Predictive of Subsequent Disease|url=https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PHYTO-01-14-0001-R|journal=Phytopathology|language=en|volume=104|issue=11|pages=1163–1174|doi=10.1094/phyto-01-14-0001-r}}</ref>.

== Management ==
Current management of bacterial walnut blight caused by ''Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis'' is through copper-based bactericide sprays. Spraying is started just prior to early shoot emergence and continued at 7- to 10-day or longer intervals as necessary for disease control according to spring rainfall<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/r881100111.html|title=UC IPM: UC Management Guidelines for Walnut Blight on Walnut|website=ipm.ucanr.edu|language=en-us|access-date=2017-12-15}}</ref>. This spraying regime is to continue until the end of August. Unfortunately, continuous use of copper-based bactericides lead to a buildup of copper in soil and can be related to yield loss in walnut orchards<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Access Library Resource - UW Libraries|url=https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PDIS.2002.86.6.583.|language=en|doi=10.1094/pdis.2002.86.6.583.}}</ref>. A natural antibiotic produced by a strain of ''Streptomyces'' by the name of kasumin or kasugamycin has been found to have high efficacy against ''Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis'' as a copper spray alternative under dry conditions. However, this same efficacy has not been found to hold up under moderate to heavy rainfall unless paired with a copper-based spray treatment<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://walnutresearch.ucdavis.edu/2013/2013_307.pdf|title=Walnut blight management using Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis dormant bud population sampling|last=Buchner|first=R.|date=3013|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=Novermber 27, 2017}}</ref>.


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}2. Lindow, S., et al. (2014). Colonization of Dormant Walnut Buds by ''Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis'' is Predictive of Subsequent Disease. Phytopathology, 104(11), 1163-1174. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from <nowiki>https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PHYTO-01-14-0001-R</nowiki>.
{{Reflist}}

3. Sacramento Valley Orchards. (2016, May 13). Walnut Blight Management. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from <nowiki>http://www.sacvalleyorchards.com/walnuts/diseases-walnuts/walnut-blight-management/</nowiki>

4. Lamichhane, J. R. (2014). Xanthomonas arboricola Diseases of Stone Fruit, Almond, and Walnut Trees: Progress Toward Understanding and Management. ''Plant Disease,'' 98(12), 1600-1610. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from <nowiki>https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PDIS-08-14-0831-FE</nowiki>.

5. Agricultural and Natural Resources, University of California. UC Pest Management Guidelines: Walnut Blight. (2017, June). Retrieved October 25, 2017, from <nowiki>http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/r881100111.html</nowiki>

6. Ninot, A., et al. (2002). Evaluation of a Reduced Copper Spraying Program to Control Bacterial Blight of Walnut. ''Plant Disease,'' ''86''(6), 583-587. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from <nowiki>https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PDIS.2002.86.6.583</nowiki>.

7. Buchner, R., et al. (2013). Walnut blight management using ''Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis'' dormant bud population sampling. ''Walnut Research Reports 2013'', 307-321. Retrieved November 27, 2017, from <nowiki>http://walnutresearch.ucdavis.edu/2013/2013_307.pdf</nowiki>.


== External links ==
== External links ==

Revision as of 14:56, 15 December 2017

Xanthomonas arboricola
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Proteobacteria
Class:
Gamma Proteobacteria
Order:
Xanthomonadales
Family:
Xanthomonadaceae
Genus:
Xanthomonas
Binomial name
Xanthomonas arboricola
Vauterin et al. 1995
Type strain
ATCC 49083

Xanthomonas arboricola is a species of proteobacteria. This phytopathogenic bacterium can cause disease in trees like Prunus, hazelnut and walnut.[1]

Disease Cycle

Xanthomonas arboricola can infect all green tissue of the plant[2]. The disease cycle of Xanthomonas arboricola begins on the leaves of the infected plant where the bacteria will live in an epiphytic stage (gathering all nutrients and water from the air) until mid to late spring when sufficient rainsplash spreads the bacteria to new buds and fruits where it becomes pathogenic. With enough early spring rain, a repeating cycle can form in which infected leaves and young buds pass the disease to early season fruit and nutlets. With less rain, a late season infection of fruit and nuts will occur. After the infection of fruit and nuts in autumn, Xanthomonas arboricola will spread to dormant buds and wounds in leaves or branches and overwinter. Come early spring the Xanthomonas will once again enter an epiphytic stage on leaves emerging from previously infected dormant buds and repeat the cycle annually[2][3].

Environment Impact on Disease Cycle

Incidence of infection can be correlated with rainfall events during the budding season of the walnut. The most important rains occurring during bud break events. This is due to the rainsplash moving inoculum from infected buds across other green tissues of the tree, most crucially to developing nuts [4].

Management

Current management of bacterial walnut blight caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis is through copper-based bactericide sprays. Spraying is started just prior to early shoot emergence and continued at 7- to 10-day or longer intervals as necessary for disease control according to spring rainfall[5]. This spraying regime is to continue until the end of August. Unfortunately, continuous use of copper-based bactericides lead to a buildup of copper in soil and can be related to yield loss in walnut orchards[6]. A natural antibiotic produced by a strain of Streptomyces by the name of kasumin or kasugamycin has been found to have high efficacy against Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis as a copper spray alternative under dry conditions. However, this same efficacy has not been found to hold up under moderate to heavy rainfall unless paired with a copper-based spray treatment[7].

References

  1. ^ Garrity, George M.; Brenner, Don J.; Krieg, Noel R.; Staley, James T. (eds.) (2005). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume Two: The Proteobacteria, Part C: The Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Epsilonproteobacteria. New York, New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-24145-6.
  2. ^ a b "Walnut Blight Management". www.sacvalleyorchards.com. Retrieved 2017-12-15.
  3. ^ Lamichhane, Jay Ram. "Xanthomonas arboricolaDiseases of Stone Fruit, Almond, and Walnut Trees: Progress Toward Understanding and Management". Plant Disease. 98 (12): 1600–1610. doi:10.1094/pdis-08-14-0831-fe.
  4. ^ Lindow, Steven; Olson, William; Buchner, Richard. "Colonization of Dormant Walnut Buds byXanthomonas arboricolapv.juglandisIs Predictive of Subsequent Disease". Phytopathology. 104 (11): 1163–1174. doi:10.1094/phyto-01-14-0001-r.
  5. ^ "UC IPM: UC Management Guidelines for Walnut Blight on Walnut". ipm.ucanr.edu. Retrieved 2017-12-15.
  6. ^ "Access Library Resource - UW Libraries". doi:10.1094/pdis.2002.86.6.583. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. ^ Buchner, R. (3013). "Walnut blight management using Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis dormant bud population sampling" (PDF). Retrieved Novermber 27, 2017. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= and |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)

2. Lindow, S., et al. (2014). Colonization of Dormant Walnut Buds by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis is Predictive of Subsequent Disease. Phytopathology, 104(11), 1163-1174. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PHYTO-01-14-0001-R.

3. Sacramento Valley Orchards. (2016, May 13). Walnut Blight Management. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from http://www.sacvalleyorchards.com/walnuts/diseases-walnuts/walnut-blight-management/

4. Lamichhane, J. R. (2014). Xanthomonas arboricola Diseases of Stone Fruit, Almond, and Walnut Trees: Progress Toward Understanding and Management. Plant Disease, 98(12), 1600-1610. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PDIS-08-14-0831-FE.

5. Agricultural and Natural Resources, University of California. UC Pest Management Guidelines: Walnut Blight. (2017, June). Retrieved October 25, 2017, from http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/r881100111.html

6. Ninot, A., et al. (2002). Evaluation of a Reduced Copper Spraying Program to Control Bacterial Blight of Walnut. Plant Disease, 86(6), 583-587. Retrieved October 25, 2017, from https://apsjournals-apsnet-org.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/doi/10.1094/PDIS.2002.86.6.583.

7. Buchner, R., et al. (2013). Walnut blight management using Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis dormant bud population sampling. Walnut Research Reports 2013, 307-321. Retrieved November 27, 2017, from http://walnutresearch.ucdavis.edu/2013/2013_307.pdf.

External links

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