Buddhist monasticism
The Buddhist monasticism of the Sangha , the order of monks ( Pali : bhikkhu , Sanskrit : bhikshu ) and nuns (Pali: bhikkhuni , Sanskrit: bhikshuni ) established by the Buddha himself , is a central element in the preservation and dissemination of the teaching ( Dhamma ) and together with the laity forms the Quadruple Community . Buddhist nuns and monks mostly live in celibacy , but there are also schools that allow marriage.
General
Initially there was only one order of monks (Bhikkhu-Sangha) [Mahavagga], later also the order of nuns (Bhikkhuni-Sangha) [Cullavagga X]. In the early years, candidates were only made by the Buddha himself using the formula Ehi Bhikkhu. (“Come, monk!”) Ordained. Later, as the community grew rapidly, he transferred the right to receive monks to his disciples [Mahavagga 34, then Mahavagga 69].
The Buddhist monk and nun life is often more ascetic than that in Christian orders. At first there were only homeless wandering monks who made their living from alms; It was only later, during the lifetime of the historical Buddha , that wealthy followers donated places to stay and lodgings. Until then, huts were only built during the rainy season, which were then torn down again at the end.
In Buddhism there are communities with very different ways of life. There is talk of different "schools", probably because division into religious orders is seen as a great offense. Even in the Buddha's time there were attempts and tendencies to split the order, but these were mostly politically motivated.
When entering the order, life is not consecrated to God and a lifelong vow taken, as in Christian orders , but the vows are taken for the duration of the religious stay and understood less as repentance than as a path of practice. So the order can be left and rejoined at any time (men up to seven times, women only once [Cvg 434]). However, this freedom can also be restricted: In Sri Lanka, for example, one usually goes to a monastery for life, and leaving the order is rated quite negatively. On the other hand, in Thailand an ordination lasting several months (preferably as a highly ordained bhikkhu) is a good form for every young man. Minors are also often given here as novices in a monastery for a certain period of time.
The great reverence that is shown to the Buddhist monks is less for the person himself than for the respect for the Dhamma that the monk or nun embodies / represents.
Nowadays fewer and fewer people in Asia choose monastic life. 40 years ago there were more than 110,000 monks and nuns with 1 million Tibetans , today there are only 46,000 with 2.7 million inhabitants, whereby there are very specific historical-political reasons for the annexation by the People's Republic of China . The decline that can also be observed in other traditional Buddhist countries is not so drastic. On the other hand, there is the development that since the 20th century people from North America, Europe and Australia have been taking the vows of monks and nuns. In some countries in Asia ( Taiwan , South Korea ) an increasing importance of the order of nuns can be noticed. There are also efforts to revive it in countries where the order of nuns did not exist (Thailand) or was considered practically extinct. In Sri Lanka there has been a living order of nuns for decades with some prominent members (e.g. the deceased Ayya Khema of German origin ) with headquarters in Dambulla.
The monk and nun rules
In Patimokkha (Pali) or Pratimoksha (Sanskrit) the rules of monks and nuns are set out. They regulate all areas of religious life. Fully ordained nuns (bhikkhunis or bhikshunis) have more rules to adhere to than fully ordained monks (in Theravada 311 versus 227).
In addition to the life of the fully ordained one, there is also the possibility of entering the order as a novice (Samanera, Samaneri) and walking the path. The rules in the order are democratically designed and are based on the welfare of the majority and in accordance with Buddha's teachings. The highest punishment is laicization , i.e. exclusion from the order. A monk or a nun loses ordination when an “expulsive offense” ( pārājika ) has been committed. The person returns to lay status through the misstep and is no longer allowed to be a highly ordained member of the order in this life. But the Buddha also gave permission to finish training as a monk or nun. If this is done properly, there is no offense.
Mahayana (Mahasanghikas and Mulasarvastavadins)
The Mahayana -Buddhismus has two Mahayana sutras , the two lines to the monastic tradition for monks and nuns relate to: the pratimoksha Sutra of Mahasamghikas and pratimoksha Sutra of Mulasarvastavadins . Both lines go back to schools of the Hinayana . The sutras are written in Sanskrit.
In this Sanskrit tradition, some of the rules differ from the Theravada tradition of Patimokkha, but the core rules are the same. So it seems that rules have been adjusted or added. The possibility of change was allowed by the Buddha, if the order decides by a majority. The changes are shown only by the fact that bhikkhus (Pali) keep 227 vows and bhikshus (Sanskrit) 253 vows. Although the country of origin of Buddhism is India , some regulations in Patimokkha are climate-related. For example, the rule is not to be allowed to own more than three pieces of clothing (robes) personally, for a monk or a nun e.g. B. in Japan at −5 ° C can no longer be maintained.
Theravada (Theravadin)
In Theravada the Patimokkha rules are still lived most precisely. In the Theravada tradition, the monasteries are relatively autonomous, but hierarchies still exist. The so-called Sangharaja ("order prince") is regarded as the highest authority in the respective country .
dress
The garment is called Ti-cîvara in the Theravada tradition, i.e. in the Pali language, and consists of three parts: Sanghâti (upper garment), Uttarâsanga (garment) and Antaravâsaka (lower garment ) [Mahavagga 346]. In addition, monks are allowed to have a camisole (amsaka) and a belt (kâya bandha) to be worn [Cullavagga 278]; also any number of cloths (inferior quality) to cover parts of the body affected by skin diseases, e.g. B. Scabies , are affected [Mahavagga 354]. Nuns have to wear a so-called breast cloth [Bhikkhuni-Pacittiya 96] and an extra robe during menstruation [Cullavagga 422]. Monks / nuns should not have more than is necessary for their own use. Additional garments are allowed as “possessions”, but only if they are shared with other monks and if the clothing is repaired or made new during the rainy season. It should be noted, however, that only three robes may be used as intended for use. Also, monks / nuns are not allowed to walk naked [Mahavagga 370] or in the clothes of lay people [Mahavagga 372] (outside the temple or in the presence of lay people, both shoulders must be covered [Sekhiya 3]). Headgear is also not allowed [Mahavagga 372]. There are many regulations regarding clothing, which is certainly due to the tremendous value of woven cloth 2600 years ago. Footwear is allowed, but only as a single-layer sandal (in the Buddhist heartland, i.e. northern India) and as a multi-layer sandal outside of India. Closed shoes are tolerated outside of India. Footwear must not be colored [Mahavagga 245-251].
Alms bowl
It belongs to the basic equipment of an ordained man, his "livelihood" so to speak. It may only consist of two materials: ceramic or iron [Cullavagga 252] and must be black (outside). In the meantime, the stainless steel bowls used in Thailand have become widespread. The handling of the alms bowl is prescribed in the Cullavagga [Cvg 254]. A carrier bag for the bowl is allowed and is usually carried in the usual robe color. The bowl often has a matching lid, which can be used as an additional receiving vessel if necessary. The ordained are not allowed to own cutlery. However, the use of a spoon is largely tolerated. In many monasteries, especially in the so-called "forest tradition", people eat exclusively from the bowl and with the (right) hand. The left hand is considered unclean.
literature
- Fritz Schäfer: The Buddha and his order. Beyerlein & Steinschulte, Stammbach-Herrnschrot 2000. ISBN 3-931095-22-3 .
- Santuttho Bhikkhu: Vinaya Complete Edition in six volumes. Eigen-Verlag, Berlin 2017. ISBN 978-3-00-056266-2 .
- Bhikkhu Kevalī: Vinaya. The unknown side of the Buddha's teaching. Mirton, Timişoara 2007 ( PDF; 1.3 MB ).
- Bhikkhu Thanissaro: The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volume I. The Patimokkha Training Rules Translated and Explained ( online ).
- Bhikkhu Thanissaro: The Buddhist Monastic Code, Volume II. The Khandhaka Training Rules Translated and Explained ( online ).
Web links
- Illustrated information page about the everyday life of monks in Japan
- Theravada information on "commodities of religious life"
- Table of Contents of the Vinaya Books