Misinformation effect

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The misinformation effect (even rarer than misinformation effect , Eng .: misinformation effect, Loftus , 1993) is known in the social and legal psychology the effect that memories are distorted at an event by false information that the person is exposed after the event. This effect supports the psychological assumption that human memories are individual constructions that are changeable and can be distorted by external influences. The fact that memories of certain events can easily be changed from the outside also plays a very important role in forensic psychology and in connection with witness statements.

Illustration of the effect

Experiments on the misinformation effect are typically structured in three phases. In the first phase, the test persons are exposed to a complex event, for example through pictures or videos. In the second phase, some of the test persons received incorrect information about the event. In the last phase, the memory of the original events is tested in order to check to what extent the misinformation influenced the memories.

In one of the first experiments on the misinformation effect, test subjects were shown various slides, including a picture of a car stopping at a stop sign (Experiment 2, Loftus et al., 1978). Other participants saw a car in front of a right of way sign. This served as the first of the three phases of the experiment. After a break, in the second phase, the test persons were shown a stop sign as misinformation at the place where a right of way sign had previously been seen. Finally, the test subjects were asked at a later point in time what they remembered of the original image. It was found that 57% of the test persons who had received incorrect information mistakenly remembered a right of way sign, and thus adopted the incorrect information from the second phase in their memories. Numerous replications showed that a significant number of test subjects took over the misinformation in their memory of the actual situation. This was not the case for the control groups that did not receive misinformation. (Davis & Loftus, 2007).

Theoretical explanation

The misinformation effect can be explained across the board by means of the organization of knowledge within the memory. Information is often stored schematically in memory (e.g. Barlett, 1932). These cognitive schemas can be understood as prototypes of events, situations, classes of objects or groups of people. Cognitive schemas therefore have “gaps” that can be filled either by information that is immediately available (e.g. misinformation) or by conclusions, and for this reason the “remembered” experience can differ from the actual experience.

Influence on the misinformation effect

Although nobody is immune to the effect, it has been shown that certain groups of people are particularly susceptible to the distorting influence.

Age

Elderly people are more likely to be subject to the misinformation effect, unintentionally from being presented with incorrect information multiple times. An experiment by Roediger and Geraci (2007) showed that people had very great difficulties when they had to decide whether they had seen an object before or not. This could be related to the fact that people of advanced age are more prone to incorrect perception and incorrect recognition of the information shown. Another influence is the frontal brain function. Older people with a high frontal function were less subject to the misinformation effect than those with less.

Alcohol placebo

Alcohol placebos can influence social behavior, but so far no effect on changes in memories has been found. In a study by S. Assefi and M. Garry (2003) it could be shown that test persons who consumed an alcohol placebo were more strongly influenced by misleading postal information after an event and are more likely to be convinced of the correctness of their statement than persons who were non-alcoholic Drinks consumed. These results provided evidence that eyewitness memories are also influenced by non-social factors such as alcohol placebos. The memory of people is not attacked per se by the alcohol placebo, but the tendency is increasing to submit to false suggestions and perceptions.

Mood

More recent findings from the field of cognitive emotion theory show that mood also has an influence on the correctness of witness statements. In a study by Forgas et al. (2005) investigated to what extent good and bad moods distort the memory of eyewitnesses. It was found that positive mood tended to lead to misleading information being integrated into the memory. However, if the test subjects were in a negative mood, this reduced the influence on the subsequent reproduction of the events. In three different experiments it was shown that this effect took place in both positive and negative events, in everyday situations and that the test subjects were exposed to this effect even after they were instructed to control their mood.

Protection against the misinformation effect

The research area also addressed the question of the extent to which one can protect oneself from the misinformation effect. The technique of the cognitive interview relates to the subject of the testimony and was developed to minimize the distorting effect on them.

Cognitive interview

The cognitive interview is a technique that is intended to help counteract the misinformation effect through certain rules and guidelines for the interviewer and thus to obtain accurate and complete testimony. An important feature here is the free reproduction of memories. It is also recommended that the events be chronologically arranged and viewed from different perspectives. The interview leader is advised to build a trust-based relationship with the witness, and above all, the witness should be discouraged from guessing and the interview leader should avoid suggestive questions. Regarding the effectiveness of the cognitive interview, it can be said that, compared to other forms of interrogation, it leads to testimony with more correct details. In particular, the avoidance of leading questions seems to contribute strongly to this effect (Frenda, Nichols and Loftus, 2004).

See also

literature

  • Elizabeth Loftus : Made in memory: Distortions in memory after misleading communications. In G. Bower (Ed.): The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory. Volume 30, pp. 187-215. Academic Press, San Diego 1993.
  • HL Roediger, ML Meade, E. Bergman: Social contagion of memory. In: Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 8, 2001, pp. 365-371.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b c Lindsey E. Wylie, Lawrence Patihis, Leslie L. McCuller, Deborah Davis, Eve Brank: Misinformation Effect in Older versus Younger Adults: A Meta-Analysis and Review . ID 2530209. Social Science Research Network, Rochester, NY November 24, 2014 ( ssrn.com [accessed June 14, 2017]).
  2. ^ Henry L. Roediger, Lisa Geraci: Aging and the misinformation effect: A neuropsychological analysis. In: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition . tape 33 , no. 2 , p. 321–334 , doi : 10.1037 / 0278-7393.33.2.321 ( apa.org [accessed June 14, 2017]).
  3. ↑ Seema L. Assefi, Maryanne Garry: Absolut® Memory Distortions . In: Psychological Science . tape 14 , no. 1 , May 6, 2016, p. 77-80 , doi : 10.1111 / 1467-9280.01422 ( sagepub.com [accessed June 14, 2017]).
  4. ↑ Joseph P. Forgas, Simon M. Laham, Patrick T. Vargas: Mood effects on eyewitness memory: Affective influences on susceptibility to misinformation . In: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology . tape 41 , no. 6 , November 2005, pp. 574-588 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jesp.2004.11.005 ( sciencedirect.com [accessed June 14, 2017]).
  5. ↑ Steven J. Frenda, Rebecca M. Nichols, Elizabeth F. Loftus: Current Issues and Advances in Misinformation Research . In: Current Directions in Psychological Science . tape 20 , no. 1 , February 4, 2011, p. 20-23 , doi : 10.1177 / 0963721410396620 ( sagepub.com [accessed June 14, 2017]).