Sam Stone (experiment)
The Sam Stone experiment is an experiment by Michelle D. Leichtman and Stephen J. Ceci from prejudice research . With the experiment it was possible to illustrate the influence of the formation of stereotypes and a suggestive questioning on the descriptions of preschool children. The description of the experiment was published in 1995 in the journal Developmental Psychology of the American Psychological Association .
Participants and methodology
106 preschoolers from private kindergartens took part in the experiment. They were of different socio-economic and ethnic origins.
The children were randomly assigned to one of four conditions:
- 1. Control group
- 2. Stereotype group
- 3. Suggestion group
- 4. Stereotype + suggestion group
The central event of the experiment was that a stranger named Sam Stone paid a visit to the kindergartens. Sam Stone always behaved in the same way: first he entered the classroom and said "Hello" to the kindergarten teacher who was reading a book to the children. The kindergarten teacher introduced the children to the strangers as "Sam Stone". Sam Stone then said he knew the story that was being read. It is one of his favorite stories. Then he wandered around the room a bit. Finally he went and waved goodbye to the children.
Control group children
The children in the control group had received no information about Sam Stone either before or after the visit. After the visit, they were asked four neutral questions about the visit. No attempt was made to convince them of anything.
Children of the stereotype group
Children in the stereotype group, on the other hand, received information about Sam Stone's personality beforehand. Sam was described to them as clumsy. A month before the visit, the scientists started visiting the children. They visited her once a week, each presenting a story about Sam's clumsiness. The stories went something like this:
You'll never guess who visited me last night, [pause] That's right. Sam Stone! And guess what he did this time? He asked to borrow my Barbie and when he was carrying her down the stairs, he accidentally tripped and fell and broke her arm. That Sam Stone is always getting into accidents and breaking things! But it's okay, because Sam Stone is very nice and he is getting my Barbie doll fixed for me.
(You won't guess who came to see me last night, [pause] Exactly, Sam Stone! And guess what he did this time! He borrowed my barbie doll and stumbled as he took her down the stairs he fell down and broke her arm. This Sam Stone always gets broken! But he's fine because Sam Stone is very nice and he'll let me fix my Barbie doll.)
A total of twelve stories were presented to the children. Then came the visit of "Sam Stone". The children in this group were also asked about the visit in a neutral manner.
Children of the suggestion group
No stories about Sam Stone were told to the children in the suggestion group. Sam Stone's visit was also followed by interviews. During these interviews, however, attempts were made to persuade the children that Sam Stone tore up a book and stained a teddy bear. For this purpose, the children were asked suggestive questions such as: "That Sam Stone made the bear dirty, was it intentional or an accident?" Or "Was Sam Stone happy or sad that he made the bear dirty?"
Children of the stereotype and suggestion group
A group of children were presented with stories describing Sam Stone as a clumsy man and asked suggestive questions.
Results
Finally, all children were asked a fifth time about Sam Stone's visit. First they were asked to tell about it. They were then asked if they had heard of the teddy being smeared and the book torn, and finally if they had seen it for themselves. If they agreed, the scientist raised doubts to see if they continued to insist on their version. The following was found:
- When talking freely, none of the children in the control group gave false information about the visit. 10% of the younger children (3–4 years old) said that they had done something with a book or the teddy bear when they were specifically asked about it. However, only 5% said they saw it. When the scientist expressed doubts, only one child said that it had really seen it. Of the older children (5–6 years old), none made false allegations while telling stories, and only 2 out of 54 made false allegations when asked by the scientist, and both said they had not seen Sam Stone do it themselves.
- Even in the stereotype group , Sam Stone was not wrongly accused of telling freely. However, when the younger children were asked directly whether Sam Stone stained the teddy bear or tore the book, 37% said it did. 18% said they saw it for themselves. When the scientist doubted this, 10% said they had seen it themselves. The older children were more likely to resist the stereotypes. There was only one child who insisted, after doubt, that Sam did it.
- In the suggestion group , a large number of the children insisted that Sam had stained the teddy bear or tore the book, even when they were telling freely. This was the case for 21% of the younger children and 14% of the older children. When asked, 55% of the younger and 38% older children said that he had done this. 35% of the younger children also said they saw him do it with their own eyes and 12% insisted even when doubted. Among the older children, however, only two insisted.
- Of the children in the stereotype + suggestion group , 46% (younger children) and 30% (older children) spontaneously told them that Sam had soiled the teddy bear or tore the book. When asked, 72% of the younger children said he did it. 44% said they saw it for themselves, and 21% insisted, even when their portrayal was questioned. A significant proportion of the older children also stayed with the presentation.
Can adults recognize incorrect information?
When asked whether Sam stained the teddy bear or tore the book, many of the children did not simply answer “yes” or “no”, but instead decorated the stories. For example, one child said that Sam first wet the teddy bear in the bathroom and then painted it with a crayon. The children's responses were videotaped and three of the videos were shown to a total of 119 scientists and doctors working on the field of “child testimony”.
- The statement of a three-year-old girl who confidently and spontaneously stated that Sam Stone threw things in the air, made the teddy bear dirty, tore the book and was accompanied by "another Sam Stone".
- The testimony of a shy four-year-old girl who described everything according to the facts and stayed with this version even when asked.
- The testimony of a five-year-old boy, who initially described the events correctly, but stated when asked that Sam tore up the book and painted the teddy bear with a brush with ice.
The experts were asked to rate how credible the children's statements were. Interestingly, the statement of the girl who correctly described the visit was classified as the most unbelievable. On the other hand, the first child to make the most false statements was rated as the most credible.
Web links
- The Effects of Stereotypes and Suggestions on Preschoolers' Reports (PDF file; 0.9 MB)