Second language acquisition

Second language acquisition (also called second language acquisition ) describes the process in which a second or further language is acquired after the first language . Depending on the conditions under which a new language is learned, a distinction is made between the terms second language and foreign language .

Second language acquisition research examines the processes involved in second language acquisition. In addition, influencing factors and requirements for successful second language acquisition are examined.

Since the 1940s attempts have been made to explain second language acquisition through various theories and hypotheses. In addition, German as a second language has been an increasingly important field of research since the 1950s.

Definition

The second language is the language that is learned after the first language - i.e. the second language learned. However, the term not only describes the second language learned after the first language, but can also stand for a third, fourth, fifth language, etc. Whether we speak of a second language or a foreign language depends on the context of employment. Usually the abbreviation L2 is used as a general name for a second language or foreign language. The abbreviation L1 applies accordingly to the language acquired first. A third language (also called a tertiary language) would be labeled L3.

Scientists are discussing whether the first language acquisition can also be a double or triple first language acquisition (e.g. if a toddler learns the languages ​​of both parents as their first language). In addition, there is no agreement as to the age from which one speaks of a double first language acquisition and from when it comes to an early second language acquisition. However, many theories on language acquisition no longer refer to first language acquisition from the age of three.

Differentiation between the terms second language and foreign language

The term second language is defined very differently in international literature. In many works, for example, the terms second language and foreign language are used synonymously. In Scandinavia and also in German-speaking countries, however, a distinction is made between these two terms. It depends on the context in which the learner acquires this new language. If the learner learns a language as a foreign language, this language acquisition takes place within the framework of formal lessons (e.g. in school). That is why the learner usually does not use the foreign language he has learned in his free time. On the other hand, one speaks of second language acquisition when a language is learned within a target culture. This is e.g. B. the case when a French person learns the German language in Germany. The main difference is that the second language is also used for everyday communication. The learner therefore feels a more urgent need to learn this second language. In addition to this everyday communication, the learner can also receive lessons in this second language.

This means that a large part of the second language acquisition can take place without teaching and learning assistance. If one wants to be terminologically correct, one speaks of learning foreign languages and acquiring second languages . Despite the above definition of the terms second language and foreign language, it remains difficult to weigh up when to speak of a second language or foreign language. The use of English in Denmark can be seen as an example of this lack of clarity: Danish pupils learn English for a certain number of hours per week in school. But the English language also has other functions for many Danish people: English, for example, is used as the official language of many large international companies. Some of the teaching at some universities is also in English. In addition, the students often use the English language in their everyday life, as all English language TV series etc. are broadcast in English. So the students mainly learn English in school, but also use the language in their everyday life.

Cognitive, affective and social language learning requirements influencing the acquisition of a second language

Influence of the first language on second language acquisition

According to the current state of research, a differentiated command of the first language (L1) is a good prerequisite for learning a second language (L2). However, poorly differentiated mastery of the L1 can become an obstacle to learning. The first language influences the understanding and production of a second language, whereby its influence can always be seen as both an aid and an obstacle. Transfer is often used in this sense . From a cognitive point of view, existing knowledge from L1 is used here in order to be able to understand and produce a second language. So elements or structures are transferred from one language to another. However, there is not only a transfer from L1 to L2: the first language can also be influenced by acquiring a second language.

Similarities between the first language and the second language can create a feeling of familiarity in the learner. This can be rated positively for the acquisition of a second language, as familiar content can be cognitively processed more quickly. So one speaks of positive transfer. If you start to learn a second language, you will initially notice phonological similarities. Later, more semantic similarities are perceived. However, it is important to note that similarities can be seen at all linguistic levels. However, recognizing similarities between words in L1 and L2 can also lead to incorrect conclusions. A negative transfer occurs, also called interference . For example, the English became has nothing to do with the German got. This is usually referred to as “ false friends ”.

So if similar structures are discovered in L2 when learning a second language, it is easier to acquire these structures. Related languages ​​only require a restructuring of the knowledge base. However, it is difficult to master this language at a high level, as the proximity between L1 and L2 favors interference. If the distance between two languages ​​is great, such restructuring is no longer possible. More distant languages ​​therefore require a reorientation. The acquisition process is more complex, especially in the initial phase, but is not hindered later by any mix-ups.

Affective factors: motivation and fear

Among the affective factors that have an influence on second language acquisition, particular attention was paid to motivation and fear, as both have a decisive influence on learning success and the speed of learning.

Motivation describes the willingness to work towards a certain goal, here learning a language. A learner is more motivated, the more valuable the goal is and the greater the likelihood that he will achieve his goal. As a rule, a distinction is made between integrative and instrumental motives: Integrative motives show when a person wants to learn a second language in order to come into contact with members of this language culture. So it has a positive attitude towards language and culture. Instrumental reasons emphasize the pragmatic aspects of second language acquisition without the learner having any real interest in communicating with members of this language culture. The learner is more likely to assume that the target language could be useful for his / her later life. As far as the fear factor is concerned, studies have shown that fear of speaking, fear of a negative evaluation and fear of examinations have a negative effect on second language acquisition.

Learning style and personality factors

A young branch of language acquisition research is concerned with how a person's learning style influences their second or foreign language acquisition. Because the way in which a person perceives and processes information is fundamental to his learning process. Therefore, the term learning style refers to preferences in relation to the presentation and processing of information (e.g. visual, auditory, etc.). But personality factors such as extroversion, empathy or willingness to take risks (especially when speaking) play an important role.

Social factors

The above personality factors are influenced by external, social factors. For example, the frequency and quality of communication with target language speakers influence second language acquisition. But respect for and support from other people can also have a positive influence on the acquisition of a second language.

Age

Research on the influence of age is mainly concerned with the question of whether children can learn new foreign languages ​​better than adults. In the 1960s, Lenneberg hypothesized that complete and successful second language acquisition would only be possible in a certain “critical period” between two and twelve years. According to Lenneberg, only the prepubertal brain has the necessary modeling ability (also called plasticity ) to successfully learn another language completely. Recent research has also shown that children have not only neurological benefits, but also affective and social benefits (e.g., less inhibitions and more contact).

According to the current state of knowledge, however, it can be assumed that children and adolescents have the better prerequisites to reach a far advanced second language level. Nevertheless, even adults can achieve a level similar to that of their mother tongue through intensive training. This age-dependent difference can mainly be explained by different sound perception: Children are more able to perceive sounds they do not know. Because of the strong character of their L1, adults tend to ignore linguistic sounds that are irrelevant in their L1.

Language learning experience

Depending on how many foreign and second languages ​​a learner has previously learned, he or she has more or less language learning experience. This means that learners transfer learning techniques and strategies, but also expectations from previous language learning experiences, to their current learning context. The difference between learners who have previously learned a foreign language and those who have no such previous experience lies primarily in the affective and personality-related area: Mißler found in a study that learners with language learning experience were more ambiguity-tolerant and had higher expectations of success, were (slightly) more willing to take risks and also had a more positive self-concept.

Learning theories and hypotheses against the background of bilingualism

Learning theory approaches

The various learning theory models are partly due to weaknesses in other models and for this reason often exist side by side, even if they are not comparable in many cases. This is due to the fact that different types of empirical data were collected for the different models and using different methods.

• The behaviorist approach

Between the 1940s and 1970s, behavioristic language acquisition theories were in the foreground when learning a second language. Language learning is seen as a conditioning process . In order to get a certain reaction (response) one uses a stimulus and positive reinforcement. The goal is to internalize the reaction through repetition as an independent action without the need for a stimulus. The learning of a language is therefore driven by constant imitation and practice, whereby mistakes should be corrected immediately. The behaviorist approach shows that the first language as a source of interference can be responsible for errors in learning a second language.

• The nativist approach

The nativist approach refers in learning a language that the person has from birth certain linguistic skills that need to be deployed. Language acquisition is therefore seen as a maturation process in which certain language skills come from within. The nativists do not believe that a child can learn a language without some input. Even so, the linguistic output is more important than the linguistic input. Noam Chomsky is one of the most important representatives of nativism and is an innate language-specific basic equipment for the hypothesis of universal grammar . For him, linguistic development is similar in almost all languages ​​and cultures, so that you don't have to learn certain elements such as grammar when learning a language.

• The cognitive approach

Cognitive language acquisition theories state that learning happens through the learner's interaction with his or her environment. In contrast to behaviorism, language acquisition is viewed as a creative process and not just imitation, whereby new knowledge is processed on the basis of existing knowledge. The language development of humans can be seen as part of the general cognitive development because he brings his language development in line with his overall biological and other development.

• Interactionist and sociocultural approach

The interactionist approach refers to the fact that language acquisition takes place through a close interrelation between the child and his environment, the interaction between mother and child being seen as the first interrelation. In interactionism, the child and his caregiver are involved in an emotionally motivated and intentionally controlled communication and the development of language and communication are inextricably linked.

Hypotheses

A whole series of hypotheses has arisen based on the different learning theories. These were not all created at the same time, but in some cases they are closely related or build on one another.

• The contrastive hypothesis

The contrastive hypothesis is based on the assumption that structural differences between the first and second language can lead to learning difficulties. If the structures of the two languages ​​are relatively similar, they can be transferred and the learning process runs without problems. If the structures are different, however, the learning difficulties and the possibility of interference are high. It is therefore possible, based on the information about the respective languages, to make a prognosis as to how high the degree of learning difficulties could be.

• The identity hypothesis

The identity hypothesis assumes that the acquisition of the second language is in principle the same as the acquisition of the first language, which can therefore be seen as the counterpart to the contrastive hypothesis. This is proven above all by the studies by Dulay & Burt (1974) with the Bilingual Syntax Measure Test, in which the acquisition of English grammatical morphemes in five to eight year old Chinese and Spanish children was analyzed. It was found that, despite the different first languages, there was complete agreement in the acquisition sequence of the morphemes. In the case of the identity hypothesis, the research methods and the assumption of universal language acquisition processes as the basis of the hypothesis were criticized.

• The interlanguage hypothesis

The interlanguage (in German mostly called interim language) is an independent linguistic transition system that appears when learning a second language. This intermediate language is both systematic and variable and has features from the first and second language as well as from independent linguistic units. It is very dynamic, so that correct and deviating units are available side by side. The interlanguage hypothesis is seen as a kind of compromise between the contrastive and identity hypothesis.

• The monitor hypothesis

The monitor hypothesis relates to the fact that the second language is acquired in the context of social situations and linguistic action. In this process, the child learns systematically and goal-oriented certain rules that monitor the child's speech. This control system can be referred to as a monitor. However, these are only available to the learner for correction before and after the utterance. Speaking in the second language is the result of unconscious acquisition.

• The input hypothesis, output hypothesis and interaction hypothesis

The input hypothesis deals with the assumption that the linguistic input plays a central role in the acquisition of a second language. If a child is confronted with new knowledge, it integrates this information into the existing linguistic knowledge, even if it does not always do this consciously. The important thing is that the input must be meaningful so that it can have an effect. The output hypothesis is about the fact that the output is assigned great importance in the language acquisition process. Accordingly, learners must be given the opportunity to develop, modify and correct their output cooperatively. The interaction hypothesis assumes that environmental factors influence second language acquisition. These can be influenced by directing attention and the learner's processing capacities. The best way to develop this mental potential is through negotiating meaning.

German as a second language (DaZ)

According to our definition, the German language is only acquired as a second language in German-speaking countries (i.e. in Germany, Austria, etc.). The DaZ phenomenon can be seen as a side effect of immigration processes. Since the 1970s, the DaZ phenomenon has been given social and scientific interest. At this point in time, the term “German as a second language” also replaced the term “guest worker German” that had been used up to that point. A lot of research has been carried out on DaZ since the 1970s, especially in the field of second language didactics.

literature

• E. Apeltauer: Basics of first language and foreign language acquisition. An introduction. (= DIFF distance learning project. Volume 15). University of Kassel and Goethe Institute. Langenscheidt, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-468-49658-3 .
• H. Barkowski, H.-J. Krumm: Specialized lexicon of German as a foreign and second language. UTB, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8252-8422-0 .
• M. Bjerre, U. Ladegaard: Veje til et nyt sprog - teorier om sprogtilegnelse. Dansklærerforeningens forlag, 2007, ISBN 978-87-7996-300-9 .
• B. Günther, H. Günther: First Language Second Language Foreign Language: An Introduction. Beltz, Weinheim 2007, ISBN 978-3-407-25474-0 .
• B. Günther, H. Günther: First language and second language: Introduction from an educational point of view. Beltz, Weinheim 2004, ISBN 3-407-25343-5 .
• B. Horseshoe, C. Riemer: Language acquisition and language learning. In: HJ Krumm, C. Fandrych, B. Hufeisen, C. Riemer (eds.): German as a foreign and second language: An international handbook. Volume 1, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-020507-7 , pp. 738-753.
• H.-W. Huneke, W. Steinig: German as a foreign language. An introduction. Erich Schmidt Verlag, 2010, ISBN 978-3-503-12203-5 .
• GF Königs: Second language acquisition and foreign language learning: terms and concepts. In: HJ Krumm, C. Fandrych, B. Hufeisen, C. Riemer (eds.): German as a foreign and second language: An international handbook. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2010, pp. 754–763.
• M. Kremer: How do humans come up with language - via language acquisition processes. GRIN, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-640-42941-7 .
• E. Oksaar: Second language acquisition: ways to multilingualism and intercultural understanding. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-17-013708-5 .

Web links

• Website of the portal "German as a Second Language" (DaZ)

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, p. 738
2. ↑ Apeltauer 1997, p. 80
3. ↑ Riemer 2010, pp. 219–220
4. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, p. 746
5. ↑ Wegener 2007, p. 7
6. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, p. 745
7. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, p. 746
8. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, pp. 739–740
9. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, p. 740
10. ↑ Oksaar 2003, p. 86
11. ↑ Kremer 2009, pp. 8–9
12. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, p. 741
13. ↑ Hufeisen & Riemer 2010, p. 741
14. ↑ Günther & Günther 2007, pp. 91–92.
15. ↑ Königs 2010, p. 756
16. ↑ Oksaar 2003, p. 99
17. ↑ Oksaar 2003, pp. 104-105
18. ↑ Oksaar 2003, pp. 112-113
19. ↑ Königs 2010, p. 756
20. ↑ Günther & Günther 2004, p. 148
21. ↑ Grünewald / Küster 2011, p. 69
22. ↑ Königs 2010, pp. 759-761