Clara Forever

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Clara Immerwahr during her student days

Clara Helene Immerwahr (married Clara Haber ; born June 21, 1870 in Polkendorf near Breslau ; died May 2, 1915 in Dahlem near Berlin ) was a German chemist . When she received her doctorate at the University of Breslau in 1900 , she was the first German to obtain a doctorate in chemistry. She worked scientifically in the then new field of physical chemistry . After working for a year at the chemical institute of her doctoral supervisor Richard Abegg in Breslau, she married the future Nobel Prize winner Fritz Haber in 1901 and had to give up her job. The marriage was unhappy, especially after the birth of her son in 1902. In 1915, Clara Haber committed suicide .

In 1993 Gerit von Leitner published the first and so far only comprehensive biography of Clara Immerwahrs, in which she portrayed the chemist as a staunch pacifist who committed suicide in protest against her husband's leading role in the gas war . Leitner's biography has been criticized for this poorly documented thesis. Historians have shown that other readings are more likely. Nonetheless, this ever-true image has established itself in public since the 1990s, so that it is a role model, especially for groups critical of armaments, pacifists and feminists . The conflict between the married couple has been taken up many times in films, plays and novels.

Life

Youth and school education

Clara Immerwahr came from a wealthy Jewish family. Her father Philipp Immerwahr was a doctor of chemistry and an enlightened free spirit . His wife Anna b. He and Krohn did not go to the synagogue and did not observe any Jewish customs. Philipp Immerwahr successfully managed the Polkendorf estate near Breslau. Despite their wealth, the family lived comparatively simply. Clara Immerwahr and her siblings (two older sisters and one brother) were brought up sparingly and modestly according to the so-called Prussian virtues propagated by the bourgeoisie at the time . The family regularly spent the winters in Breslau with Lina Immerwahr, Philipp Immerwahr's mother, who ran a large women's clothing store there.

Until she was seven years old, Clara Immerwahr and her older sisters were tutored at home by a private tutor. Then they attended the secondary school for girls , which was housed in the grandmother's house. In 1890 the mother Anna Immerwahr died of cancer. Philipp Immerwahr handed the estate over to his eldest daughter and her husband and moved to Breslau with the twenty-year-old Clara.

At the end of the 19th century, Jewish girls in Prussia attended secondary schools ten to fifteen times more often than non-Jewish girls. Although the daughters later did not have any gainful employment, Jewish parents usually encouraged their daughters to get a higher education. It was not until 1889 that Helene Lange offered real courses for girls in Berlin. In 1893 they were converted into high school courses that should lead to the Abitur. The first woman graduated from high school in Berlin in 1895. From 1895, it was at the discretion of the individual university in Prussia to enable women with the appropriate qualifications to attend individual lectures as guest auditors. In the winter semester of 1895/96, eleven teachers enrolled for the first time as guest auditors at lectures at the University of Breslau .

In 1892/93 Clara Immerwahr completed a teacher training seminar in Breslau, at that time the only possibility for most women of further education. According to her biographer Gerit von Leitner , a teacher at the Immerwahr seminar gave the Conversations on Chemistry written by Jane Marcet because of her keen interest in the natural sciences ; Marcet's book contributed significantly to the popularization of chemistry in the 19th century. After completing the seminar, Clara Immerwahr never practiced the profession of teacher. With the help of her father, she was admitted to the Realgymnasium in Breslau at Easter 1896 for the one-year volunteer examination, as the secondary school leaving certificate was called at that time, which she successfully completed. In October 1896 she submitted an application to the University of Breslau for the first time and was able to attend lectures on experimental physics in the winter semester of 1896/97. This served the goal of being able to take the Abitur examination at the Realgymnasium, which she succeeded in 1897. Philipp Immerwahr also supported his daughter on the way to university, without expecting that this would later provide her with a regular income. In the same year she converted to the evangelical faith .

Studies and scientific work

Richard Abegg 1900

From the winter semester of 1897/98, Immerwahr studied chemistry as a guest student at the University of Breslau. The choice of subject was probably based on family and personal interests. Many of her family members had studied chemistry. Immerwahr was fascinated by chemistry from an early age. Always-true interest was also not uncommon: In the first decades of women's studies, chemistry quickly developed into a popular subject for women.

Friedrich Wilhelm Küster 1902

The department head Friedrich Wilhelm Küster , a student of Walther Nernst , introduced Immerwahr to the then new field of physical chemistry , in which she was very interested. In parallel with the expansion of the chemical industry, chemistry had established itself as a scientific discipline at universities in the course of the 19th century, with the industry complaining about the inadequate qualifications of university graduates. In order to be able to do a doctorate in chemistry, the university degree customary at the time, the Abitur was not a requirement at that time. Therefore, the Association of Laboratory Board Members at German universities agreed in 1897 to standardize the level of training in the so-called Association Examination as a prerequisite for a doctorate in chemistry. In the winter semester of 1898/99 (March 3, 1899) Immerwahr was the first woman ever to take the association examination with Albert Ladenburg at the chemical laboratory.

In 1899 Küster moved to the Clausthal Mining Academy . His successor was Richard Abegg , who promoted Immerwahr despite her status as a guest student and with whom she deepened her knowledge of physical chemistry. Together they investigated the electrochemical behavior of fluorine and fluorosilver. In 1899, Abegg and Guido Bodländer presented the concept of electrical affinity as a systematic means. Abegg and Immerwahr developed the concept further and published the results together in November 1899. They then turned to photochemical problems.

Finally, a decree by the Prussian minister of education allowed attending lectures as a guest auditor to be recognized as a valid course of study. This made it possible for the guest student Immerwahr to achieve her doctorate and finish her studies with this degree. For her dissertation, she carried out preliminary experimental investigations for two months in Küster's laboratory at the Clausthaler Bergakademie, which she then evaluated in contact with Küster and Abegg. Immerwahr published the first partial results in 1900, this time under her name alone. As she explained, she had provided quantitative evidence for the findings on the solubility of heavy metals previously discovered by Nernst, Wilhelm Ostwald and Küster .

In the same year she wrote her more comprehensive dissertation entitled Contributions to the determination of the solubility of poorly soluble salts of mercury , copper , lead , cadmium and zinc . This work, which she published in excerpts in the Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie , systematically dealt with the interplay between the solubility of selected heavy metal salts and the electroaffinity of the individual groups and atoms. The aim was to answer the question of whether electro-affinities are additive quantities. The article provided tables with experimentally determined values ​​of quantities such as equilibrium concentrations and relative electrode potentials . The tables could be the reason that this article has been cited relatively often.

In June Immerwahr applied for admission to the disputation . On December 22, 1900, Clara Immerwahr received her doctorate “ magna cum laude ” . The public defense of her dissertation, which was widely reported in the local press, was attended by an unusually large audience, including many women. In the end, the dean of the philosophical faculty described her as a shining example for her fellow students. He restricted, however, that hopefully no new era would dawn in which women poured into the universities instead of fulfilling their “sacred duty” as the “family refuge”. From her lively correspondence with Richard Abegg it is clear that the path to Clara Immerwahr's doctorate was difficult due to external and internal resistance. In her letters, she presented herself as a sensitive, nervous woman, in whom the psychological exertion often triggered severe headaches.

Immerwahr's doctorate was a milestone in women's studies in Germany. From the 1890s, the number of women who received their doctorate under special conditions at German universities increased. Most of them were women from abroad. With Immerwahr's doctorate, a woman was the first to receive a doctorate from the University of Wroclaw. Only the second woman who received her doctorate in chemistry in Germany was always true (after Julija Lermontowa from Russia in 1874 at the University of Göttingen ).

After completing her doctorate, Immerwahr remained at the university as Abegg's assistant, although it is not known to what extent she was paid for her work. During this time she gave a lecture on chemistry and physics in the household for the Frauenwohl association .

Marriage to Fritz Haber

Fritz Haber as a doctoral student in 1891. In the same year, Clara Immerwahr asked a mutual friend for this picture, which is considered evidence that she had fallen in love with Haber.

Already in her youth, Clara Immerwahr met Fritz Haber , who was two years her senior and who also came from a wealthy Jewish family in Breslau. The exact beginning of their relationship is not known, but there is evidence that they fell in love with each other in 1891 at the latest. At this point in time, Haber completed his chemistry studies with a doctorate.

In 1901 Richard Abegg and his colleague took part in the general meeting of the German Electrochemical Society in Freiburg . Clara Immerwahr was the first and only woman to attend the company's general meeting. During this conference, Fritz Haber, who was also present, proposed to her, which she accepted after some hesitation. Eight years later, in a letter, she described to Abegg what motivated her to marry:

“It has always been my view of life that it was only worth living if you developed all your abilities and lived through as much as possible that a human life can offer in terms of experiences. And so I finally decided to marry with the impulse that otherwise a crucial page in the book of my life and a string of my soul would be broken. "

- Clara Immerwahr : Letter to Richard Abegg dated April 23, 1909

Immerwahr and Haber married in Breslau on August 3, 1901 and moved to Karlsruhe after their honeymoon . Haber was an associate professor for technical chemistry at the Technical University there from 1898 . The couple lived in a prestigious apartment, the high rent of which did not allow them to employ servants, which is why Clara Haber had to do all the housework herself. She had to postpone work in the laboratory to a later date, as she wrote to her mentor Abegg. She lacked scientific work. In addition, there were mood swings during her difficult pregnancy. Physically, she was better off when she could regularly proofread her husband's manuscripts and make drawings in the afternoon at the chemical institute. Haber worried about his wife's difficult pregnancy because his mother had died in childbed . He dealt with this concern as well as the failure in his appointment to the new physico-chemical chair at the Karlsruhe University during this time through a high workload. He suffered from gastritis for weeks . On June 1, 1902, their son Hermann (1902–1946) was born. Shortly afterwards, Haber went on a four-month trip to the USA on behalf of the German Electrochemical Society. Fritz Haber's second wife reported in 1970 that Clara Haber had given up the shared bedroom after her husband returned from the USA, which is supported by other reports. According to the historian Angelika Ebbinghaus , this could have been the cause of serious marital conflicts.

After the birth of her son, who was often ill and had to be looked after, Clara Haber's hopes of resuming chemical work were dashed. She developed into a thorough housewife whose cooking skills were widely praised. In the descriptions of many contemporaries (family and colleagues of her husband) she was often portrayed as a pedantic and over-anxious "housemother" who bothered her overburdened husband with worries about household and child. However, it was recognized in part that for the chemist, marriage and family did not make up for the lack of intellectual activity.

Fritz Haber 1905

In 1905 Haber published the textbook Thermodynamics of Technical Gas Reactions , which became a great success. He dedicated it to his wife with the words: “To my dear Mrs. Clara Haber, Dr. phil., appropriated in thanks for silent cooperation ”. The dedication was later assessed differently by biographers. Haber biographer and historian Margit Szöllösi-Janze described the dedication as unusual for the time and concluded that Clara Haber had contributed to the content. In contrast, the journalist Ulla Fölsing assessed the dedication as everyday and meaningless.

Clara Haber tried not to let her scientific skills lie idle. In the winter semester of 1905/06 she gave a four-part lecture series on "Chemistry in the kitchen and home" in front of the Volksbildungsverein in Karlsruhe. The audience, which in 1906 already amounted to 100, was enthusiastic. Encouraged by this, she expanded the lectures further. In October 1910 she held a four-part course “Natural Sciences in the Household” as part of the Karlsruhe Workers' Education Association .

The couple became increasingly estranged, which they could not hide from Fritz Haber's employees and foreign students. Fritz Haber was nervous and irritable, especially during the frequently occurring work-intensive phases, which wore down Clara Haber and led to frequent migraine attacks. In 1906 her health was so damaged that a rest period in a private sanatorium run by a neurologist became necessary.

Unlike her husband, Clara Haber had nothing to do with representation. She dressed in reform clothes , which did not meet with the goodwill of her husband, his colleagues and their wives. Her social circle disapproved of the fact that she did not keep enough distance from the service staff, did her shopping herself and received guests in the kitchen apron. Unusually for a professor's wife, she said goodbye to evening groups early with the remark that she had to get up at six in the morning. Her justified concern for his health irritated her husband, while Clara Haber felt overwhelmed by his dominance and egocentricity. In 1909, in a letter to her old friend Abegg, she drew a sad conclusion about her marriage (on mourning paper with a black border):

“Remember the other part too! What Fritz has gained in these 8 years, that - and even more - I have lost, and what is left of me fills me with the deepest dissatisfaction. "

- Clara Immerwahr : Letter to Richard Abegg dated April 23, 1909
Haber Villa in Berlin-Dahlem

In 1906 Fritz Haber was appointed full professor for physical and electrochemistry at the Technical University of Karlsruhe. In 1911 he was appointed director of the newly founded Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry in Berlin. In July the family moved from Karlsruhe to Berlin-Dahlem in the service villa, which Fritz Haber was now entitled to.

The Haber couple and the gas war

During the First World War , Clara Haber set up a provisional kindergarten on the second floor of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for almost 60 children between the ages of two and a half and twelve, whose fathers were at the front. This corresponded to the usual activities of educated women on the so-called " home front ". Fritz Haber volunteered when the war broke out in 1914. As a scientific advisor in the War Ministry, he was involved in research into the saving or manufacture of explosives and the development of new production processes for the synthesis of substitutes for raw materials that were important to the war effort . These included the so-called "war chemicals" such as saltpeter , the importation of which from Chile had come to a standstill due to the English naval blockade .

Fritz Haber's research made it possible to use the poison gases chlorine and phosgene as weapons of war. Originally it was about the development of an irritant gas , which should be a side effect of an otherwise fully functional explosive projectile. But in December 1914, the chief of the Supreme Army Command, Erich von Falkenhayn, instructed the chemists to find a substance that would render people permanently incapable of fighting. Fritz Haber pointed out the military leadership to chlorine , which should be blown off from steel bottles on the enemy.

Clara Haber accompanied her husband to the exercises of the new gas pioneer units on the Wahn firing range near Cologne . According to the memories of an employee, she repeatedly publicly opposed Fritz Haber going to the front. During experiments with the irritant cacodyl chloride on the institute premises , an explosion occurred on December 17, 1914, in which Otto Sackur , an old fellow student of Clara Haber, was killed. Clara Haber, who was nearby, acted more carefully in this crisis than her husband, who was paralyzed. Shortly afterwards she wrote a letter to the Japanese chemist Setsuro Tamaru. He had worked with Fritz Haber until the outbreak of war , but then had to leave Germany because Japan was an opponent of the war. In the letter, Clara Haber mentioned the "terrible accident" and described it as "unpredictable". She emphasized that in her few free hours she wanted to do something "useful" for the country.

From February 1915 Fritz Haber was at the forefront of supervising preparations for the first German gas attack near Ypres . On April 22, 1915, during the Second Battle of Flanders , the first major, militarily successful use of poison gas in history took place at Ypres by order of the Supreme Army Command . The specially trained gas pioneers let around 150 tons of chlorine escape from bottles using the Haber's blow molding process over a length of around six kilometers. The chlorine cloud killed up to 1,200 French soldiers and wounded up to 3,000. Haber was personally present at the operation and was subsequently promoted to captain of the reserve. There are various reports about Clara Haber's reaction to this. Decades later, her relative Paul Krassa reported that she had been appalled to his wife about her husband's reports from the front about the consequences of the gas war. In contrast, her son's school principal wrote in 1934 that she proudly told him about the success of the first gas attack immediately after receiving the news.

Clara Haber's suicide

Clara Haber shot herself on May 2, 1915. Further details about the course of events and possible backgrounds can be found in the report by the institute mechanic Lütge from 1958 and in the autobiography of Charlotte Haber, Fritz Haber's second wife. Lütge, who in turn refers to statements made by the servants and the chauffeur, reported that there was an evening party at the Habers' premises on May 1, which was also attended by Fritz Haber's later second wife Charlotte Nathan. Clara Haber "surprised her husband and Charlotte Nathan in a precarious situation". Clara Haber did not shoot herself in the garden until the early hours of the morning. Lütge also stated that farewell letters had also been found. According to Charlotte Haber, Clara Haber, whose death did not occur immediately, was found by her son Hermann at dawn, who then informed the father. Following his orders, he traveled to the Eastern Front on the same day.

There are only reports and interpretations of the contemporary witnesses on the motives for her suicide and the exact processes that were recorded decades later. Fritz Haber and his family have not made any statements about Clara Haber's death. The emigrated employees of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (including James Franck ) were convinced that “the motive was most likely to be found in the desperate disapproval of the gas war inaugurated by her husband”. However, other people who experienced the couple in their family environment referred to the basic marital problems. Lütge thought it absurd that Clara Haber killed herself because of her husband's involvement in the gas war. The discovery of Fritz Haber's involvement with Charlotte Nathan was the reason.

In her Immerwahr biography, Gerit von Leitner wrote that Clara Haber had wanted to forego festivities for reasons of conscience, so that a violent marital dispute broke out in which Fritz Haber accused her of disloyalty, and that she "saw only one more option, not to be an accomplice ”. Leitner based this version on stories from third parties. Adolf-Henning Frucht had heard this version from Friedrich Schmidt-Ott , who in turn Fritz Haber is said to have confided in himself many years after his wife's suicide. Leitner did not cite this evidence in the first edition of her biography, only in a radio broadcast. Schmidt-Ott himself stated in his memoir, published in 1952, that Haber called him the evening after the suicide and said that his wife could no longer endure life.

The nuclear physicist Lise Meitner and Edith Hahn, Otto Hahn's wife , who both knew Clara Haber only briefly, cited Clara Haber's sensitivity and instability and the apparently broken marriage as reasons in letters from May 1915. The historian and archivist Eckart Henning emphasized that a public dispute over differences of opinion on the gas war was not an issue in these letters, which - if it was actually talk of the day - "could hardly have gone unmentioned".

Margit Szöllösi-Janzes summed up that the sources for Clara Haber's suicide hinted at a “much more complex causal constellation” than a “possible split over the gas war and Haber's role in chemical warfare” and one should beware of simplifications. Angelika Ebbinghaus, who summarized Clara Haber's behavior as "ambivalent" and her life as "broken", gave a similar judgment. The historians of science Bretislav Friedrich and Dieter Hoffmann, after considering the sources of Clara Haber's suicide, came to the conclusion that the suicide would have been the result of a "catastrophic failure" to which an abundance of circumstances contributed - their unfulfilled life, Fritz Haber's cheating, the tragic deaths of the close friends Richard Abegg and Otto Sackur as well as death and destruction that the war brought with it.

Grave site

Grave of Fritz and Clara Haber in the Basel Hörnli cemetery

Clara Haber's urn was buried in Berlin-Dahlem. In the winter of 1933 Fritz Haber decreed in his will that he wanted to find his last rest alongside his first wife (Haber's second marriage had been divorced since 1927). Should this not be possible due to the anti-Jewish movement that has since emerged in Germany, he still ordered the transfer of Clara Haber's ashes to his grave outside Berlin-Dahlem. His wish was granted by their son Hermann Haber, who arranged for the reburial to be carried out a few months after Fritz Haber's burial on September 29, 1934 in the Basel cemetery on the Hörnli .

Hermann Haber emigrated to the USA in 1941, where he - like his mother - committed suicide in 1946.

History of impact and reception

Sources

The correspondence of Clara Haber with the immediate family environment has not survived, in particular there are no directly transmitted sources from the time of her suicide, which - according to the conclusion of the biographer Margit Szöllösi-Janze - is almost certainly due to "external interference". Neither Clara nor Fritz Haber's estate has actually come down to us. When Fritz Haber emigrated in 1933, most of his correspondence remained at the Dahlem Institute. His correspondence with friends later passed into the possession of his son Hermann Haber, who left them in Paris when he emigrated to the USA in 1941 . Copies of this correspondence are now in the archive on the history of the Max Planck Society .

The American Morris Goran interviewed Jewish emigrants from Germany since the 1940s for his Fritz Haber biography presented in 1967, whereby Hermann Haber and Else Freyhan, Fritz Haber's sister, refused to work with him due to an unfavorable impression. Since Goran's statement does not clearly substantiate his statements, Fritz Haber's life story is not a reliable source for later biographies.

Haber's colleague Johannes Jaenicke , who wanted to write a biography about him, collected documents from archives and letters in private ownership for decades. He also corresponded with contemporary witnesses and conducted a large number of interviews. The biography did not come about, but shortly before his death in 1983 Jaenicke left his "Haber Collection" to the archive on the history of the Max Planck Society (today sometimes referred to as the "Jaenicke Collection"). This inventory has been in order since 1990 and made accessible via a finding aid.

Clara Immerwahr had a close relationship with her doctoral supervisor Richard Abegg. They exchanged letters regularly until his accidental death in 1910. Your part of the correspondence has been preserved and is now part of the "Haber Collection". The letters were published repeatedly in extracts, for the first time in 1986 in a document by employees of the Fritz Haber Institute on its 75th anniversary, later in the Haber and Immerwahr biographies as well as in an edition of the correspondence between Adolf von Baeyer , Wilhelm Ostwald , Richard Abegg, Fritz Haber and Clara Haber-Immerwahr. This correspondence, together with letters and postcards to members of the extended family, today also part of the "Haber Collection", are the only personal documents that Clara Haber has received. In addition, there are some official papers, such as Clara Immerwahr's application for admission to the doctoral examination, and published documents including her dissertation, the newspaper report on her doctoral examination, lecture announcements and her obituary.

1970 published Charlotte Haber geb. Nathan wrote her memoirs, in which she reproduced the stories of her divorced husband and statements by Fritz Haber's father. However, your presentation must be read critically because of its bias.

In 2015, the granddaughter of a Japanese colleague Fritz Haber published a facsimile letter that Clara Haber had written for him in 1915. In 2016, the wording of three letters from 1915 was published in which Edith Hahn and Lise Meitner exchanged information a few days after Clara Haber's suicide. The letters were bought at a private auction in 2002 and added to the “Haber Collection” of the archive on the history of the Max Planck Society.

Biographical presentations

In 1967 Morris Goran published the first comprehensive biography of Fritz Haber, for which he had been researching material among former employees of Haber in the USA since 1940. In his presentation, he mixed hard facts, anecdotes and dubious information and did not cite sources. On almost two pages in his book he also went into Clara Haber and described her as “seriously affected by the role of her husband in the gas war”. He put it: “She began to regard poison gas not only as a perversion of science but also as a sign of barbarism. ”(“ She began to see poison gas not only as a perversion of science, but also as a sign of barbarism. ”). He interpreted their protests against the gas war as the result of their longstanding depression and fears and the general overburdening they postulated. As the historian Margit Szöllösi-Janze emphasized, with Goran the line between historically correct research and fiction “blurs”.

The 75th anniversary of the Fritz Haber Institute in 1986 was the occasion for a group of employees of the institute to present their view of the interplay between business, politics and science. For this they picked out Fritz Haber and Clara Immerwahr. Her presentation was based on Goran's Story of Fritz Haber and was supplemented by the first publication of some of Clara Haber's letters.

The author Gerit von Leitner (temporarily Gerit Kokula) wrote the script for a WDR radio documentary on Clara Immerwahr in 1990, which was followed by an article in the Tagesspiegel in 1991 . In this newspaper article, she attributed Goran's phrase "perversion of science" to Clara Immerwahr. In 1993 Gerit von Leitner finally published the biography Der Fall Clara Immerwahr , in which she portrayed Immerwahr as a combative pacifist who killed herself in protest against her husband's contribution to the gas war. Leitner's biography has been critically assessed by historians. The historian Angelika Ebbinghaus complained about the missing sources, the selective interpretation of the sources and the lack of distance between the biographer and the person portrayed, onto whom she would project her own themes, feelings and views. The breaks in Immerwahrs personality would be blurred by the collages that Leitner constantly used. The science historians Bretislav Friedrich and Dieter Hoffmann criticized the fact that Leitner put statements and opinions into the mouth of the chemist or described situations for which there are neither records nor evidence. They mentioned in particular the admiration that Clara Haber is said to have felt for Bertha von Suttner and an alleged discussion with her husband about women's rights , in which she represented Suttner's views. Margit Szöllösi-Janze characterized Leitner's biography as a combination of scientific and literary biography, as a "modeled", "in places almost relived" life picture and criticized the fact that the sparse evidence made it difficult to separate facts and fiction in Leitner's presentation. The historian and publicist Volker Ullrich, on the other hand, praised the biography of the time as "one of the most successful examples of a new, feminine-inspired form of historiography".

A year later, the chemist Dietrich Stoltzenberg presented the first comprehensive Fritz Haber biography, which was based on the sources of the "Haber Collection". A chapter is dedicated to Fritz Haber's first marriage. This biography was widely praised for the presentation of the scientific facts, but also criticized that it would not meet the standards of the genre of scientific biography. In the reviews, a differentiated portrayal of Haber's private life and the relationship with his wives was mostly missing. Angelika Ebbinghaus complained that the biographer's required knowledge of human nature "often gets stuck in the human all-too-human" when empathizing with the people and that he would not show the empathy he had for Fritz Haber with Clara Haber. After the birth of her son, Stoltzenberg portrayed Clara Haber as an almost compulsive housewife who was unable to cope with everyday problems. He would not have critically questioned the present testimonies from contemporaries. Stoltzenberg's conclusion on Clara Haber's suicide that her life is an example of how "people who, in search of 'self-realization' [...] build a wall around themselves that becomes a self-built prison", is incomprehensible to Ebbinghaus . Finally, Ebbinghaus complained that Stoltenberg would repeatedly write "without distance" from Clara or Charlotte (with regard to Charlotte Nathan), while her husband was in no way reduced to "Fritz".

In 1998, the biography of Margit Szöllösi-Janze was another Fritz Haber biography, which described Clara Immerwahr's life, the Haber's marriage and Clara Haber's suicide in a decidedly source-critical manner and which is now considered the standard biography of the Nobel Prize winner. The reviewer Jörg Hackeschmidt praised the fact that Szöllösi-Janze presented the events surrounding Clara Haber's suicide in a more differentiated and “profane” manner than in previous biographical treatises. According to Szöllösi-Janze's biography, the “judgment-laden” interpretation of Immerwahrs Suizid as a “beacon” against the male “science of extermination” cannot be upheld.

Public reception

Although Clara Immerwahr was one of the first women to receive a doctorate in chemistry in Germany, her work in this regard was not publicly visible for a long time. Her doctorate was listed in 1939 in the anniversary publication for 25 years of women's studies compiled by Elisabeth Boedeker - unlike that of her predecessor in chemistry Julija Lermontowa , which was overlooked. But in general, women's studies and its pioneers in Germany have long received little attention. This only changed with the new wave of the women's movement from the end of the 1960s, which reawakened interest in the pioneers. In this situation, the article on Clara Immerwahr in the publication on the anniversary of the Fritz Haber Institute in 1986 met with great interest, which is why it was also printed in the magazine Emma . In particular, Clara Haber's letter to Abegg, published for the first time on April 23, 1909, prompted historians and natural scientists in particular to look at their life. In 1991 the International Doctors Against Nuclear War ( IPPNW ) used Clara Immerwahr's name for an anti-war award. In one of the first anthologies on the pioneers of women's studies in 1992, the social scientist Christine Roloff summed up that for Clara Immerwahr science was not compatible with Fritz Haber's claims to power.

Gerit von Leitner's 1993 biography met with a broad public response despite the (scientific) historical criticism. It has been featured in numerous national and regional newspapers, magazines, and radio broadcasts, as well as the New York Review of Books . The current events and issues in the early 1990s - such as the misuse of scientific research by the military and the Gulf War 1990–1991 - led to Clara Haber's life and suicide aroused great interest. The reviews often bridged the gap between gas warfare, their suicide and these issues. Clara Haber's life also met the zeitgeist with regard to the issue of reconciling family and work for academics and equality within academic groups, which was then the focus . The historians of science Bretislav Friedrich and Dieter Hoffmann described Leitner's book as a “medium” with which the opinions, ideals and ideal images of the peace movement, feminism and anti-militarism were promoted.

After the publication of Leitner's biography, the "myth of ever-true", as Friedrich and Hoffmann called it, quickly established itself. Always true was now considered an exponent of a “female, life-saving science”, as “pacifist heroin”, who killed herself in protest against her husband's gas war. She became an icon among armaments-critical groups, pacifists and feminists. Several streets have been named after the chemist with reference to her pacifism and suicide. The conflict between Clara and Fritz Haber was repeatedly dramatized in plays, films and novels. The phrase “perversion of science” is often quoted in connection with Clara Immerwahr, even if it is made clear that it is not her utterance. The phrase is an integral part of the public image of the chemist Clara Immerwahr-Haber.

CLARA by Claudia Reinhardt - artist's impression of Immerwahrs Suizid as part of the Killing Me Softly project .

Fictional representations of Clara Immerwahrs

  • On October 18, 1990, WDR and SFB broadcast the radio play Half of Life - Femina Doctissima Clara Immerwahr by Gerit Kokula (= Gerit von Leitner) (directed by Hein Bruehl, contributors Hannelore Hoger , Leonore Frankenstein).
  • In the 1992 verse drama Square rounds by Tony Harrison, Immerwahr says to Haber: “I gave up chemistry to serve you as wife. Now you betray our science to poison life "(roughly:" I gave up chemistry to become your wife. Now you are betraying our science to poison life ".)
  • In 2004, Clara Immerwahr was one of ten women whose suicide was recreated and photographed by the artist Claudia Reinhardt as part of her photographic project Killing Me Softly .
  • In Sabine Friedrich's novel Immerwahrs from 2007, Immerwahrs life is told in retrospect. Again, the focus is on her difficult marriage and the ethical differences with her husband.
  • Daniel Ragussi's short film Haber from 2008 deals with Haber's development of poison gas and shows Immerwahr as an ambitious chemist who breaks apart trying to promote her brilliant husband's career and raise a child.
  • The 2003 drama Einstein's Gift by the Canadian playwright Vern Thiessen focuses on the life and career of Fritz Haber, in particular on his activities during the First World War. In the play Thiessen has Immerwahr say: “Why would I create an idea or nourish a theory or ask a question or search for a solution, or bother to think ever again, when my husband has taken my faith and turned it into something terrible. When my husband's belief is butchery. When my husband's religion is murder? ”(Roughly:“ Why would I create an idea, or develop a theory, or ask a question, or seek a solution, or ever think again, when my husband has taken my belief and turned it into something terrible . If my husband's faith is slaughter. If my husband's religion is murder? ")
  • The 2014 television film Clara Immerwahr tells of her life at the side of Fritz Haber (directed by Harald Sicherheitsitz ). The chemist is shown as a determined and idealistic woman who enters into marriage in the sense of a project among equal people who are committed to science, but who fails because of the male world.
  • In the theater-film project The Forbidden Zone by Duncan Macmillan (staged by Katie Mitchell ) from 2014, Clara Haber is one of the characters who depict the powerlessness of women in war.

Honors

Memorial stone at the Haber Villa in Berlin-Dahlem

Memorial stone

In 2006 a memorial stone for Clara Immerwahr was erected in the garden of the Haber Villa on the grounds of the Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society.

Streets and squares

Awards and Medals

  • Since 1991 the association IPPNW ( International Doctors Against Nuclear War ) has awarded the Clara Immerwahr award “to people who, despite personal disadvantages, stand up against war, armaments and for human rights”.
  • The Clara Immerwahr Award, endowed with 15,000 euros, by the UniCat Cluster of Excellence and the Technical University of Berlin has been honoring young female researchers in the field of catalysis research since 2012.
  • The Technical University of Kaiserslautern has been awarding the Clara Immerwahr Prize , an excellence prize for female students studying biological and chemical engineering , since 2015 .

Publications

literature

  • Daniel Charles: Between genius and genocide. The tragedy of Fritz Haber, father of chemical warfare . Jonathan Cape, London 2005, ISBN 0-224-06444-4 .
  • Angelika Ebbinghaus : Gerit von Leitner, The Clara Immerwahr case. Life for a humane science, Beck, Munich, 1993 (review) . In: 1999. Journal for Social History of the 20th and 21st Century . tape 8 , no. 4 , 1993, p. 125-131 .
  • Ulla Fölsing: Brilliant relationships. Famous Couples in Science (=  Beck'sche Reihe . Volume 1300 ). Beck, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-42100-8 , p. 136-145, 176 .
  • Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Haber, nee Immerwahr (1870-1915): Life, Work and Legacy . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , 2016, ISSN  1521-3749 , p. 437–448 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600035 , PMID 27099403 , PMC 4825402 (free full text).
  • Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Immerwahr: A Life in the Shadow of Fritz Haber . In: Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, Florian Schmaltz, Martin Wolf (Eds.): One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences . Springer International Publishing, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-51663-9 , pp. 45-67 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-319-51664-6_4 .
  • Ronny Helfensteller: A chemist marriage in which the experimental apparatus are on an equal footing? Consideration of chemical lines from a historical-feminist perspective . State examination thesis. University of Rostock, 2018 ( uni-rostock.de ).
  • Eckart Henning: Suicide in Dahlem (1915): Unpublished letters from Edith Hahn and Lise Meitner about Dr. Clara Haber b. Always true: suicide in Dahlem (1915) . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , March 2016, p. 432-436 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600052 .
  • Gerit von Leitner: The Clara Immerwahr case. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 . Second, revised and improved edition: 1994, ISBN 3-406-38256-8 .
  • Susan V. Meschel: A Modern Dilemma for Chemistry and Civic Responsibility: The Tragic Life of Clara Immerwahr . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 638 , no. 3-4 , March 2012, pp. 603-609 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201100409 .
  • Dietrich Stoltzenberg: Fritz Haber. Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew . VCH, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 3-527-29206-3 .
  • Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  • Christine Roloff: Clara Immerwahr, married. Haber (1870-1915). First female German chemist to do a doctorate at a German university . In: Anne Schlüter (Ed.): Pioneers, Feminists, Career Women? On the history of women's studies in Germany (=  women in history and society . Volume 22 ). Centaurus, Pfaffenweiler 1992, ISBN 3-89085-419-2 , p. 93-96 .
  • Dieter Wöhrle: Fritz Haber and Clara Immerwahr. Learning from history . In: Chemistry in Our Time . tape 44 , February 2010, p. 30-39 , doi : 10.1002 / ciuz.200900491 .

Web links

Commons : Clara Immerwahr  - Collection of Images

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Arthur von Oettingen (Ed.): JC Poggendorff's biographical-literary concise dictionary for the history of the exact sciences containing evidence of the living conditions and achievements of mathematicians, astronomers, physicists, chemists, mineralogists, geologists, geographers, etc. of all peoples and times. Fourth volume (covering the years 1883 to the present) . Publisher by Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig 1904, p. 681-682 ( archive.org ).
  2. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 124 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  3. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 15-18 .
  4. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 19-23 .
  5. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 26-27 .
  6. ↑ James C. Albisetti: Schooling German Girls and Women . Princeton University Press, Princeton 1988, ISBN 978-1-4008-5979-5 , pp. 158-159, 206, 208 ( jhu.edu ).
  7. ↑ Jeffrey Johnson: German women in chemistry, 1895-1925 . In: NTM. Journal of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine . tape 6 , 1998, pp. 1-21, 65-90 , 2 .
  8. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 39 .
  9. ^ A b Dietrich Stoltzenberg: Fritz Haber. Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew . VCH, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 3-527-29206-3 , pp. 66 .
  10. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 29-31 .
  11. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 125 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  12. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 126 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  13. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 126 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  14. ^ A b c Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 126-127 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  15. ↑ Britta Görs: The chemical-technical assistance. On the development of a new professional field of activity in chemistry at the beginning of the 20th century . In: Theresa Wobbe (Ed.): Women in academy and science. Places of work and research practices 1700–2000 (=  research reports / interdisciplinary working groups, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences . Volume 10 ). Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003639-7 , pp. 169-198 , 176 .
  16. ↑ Britta Görs: The chemical-technical assistance. On the development of a new professional field of activity in chemistry at the beginning of the 20th century . In: Theresa Wobbe (Ed.): Women in academy and science. Places of work and research practices 1700–2000 (=  research reports / interdisciplinary working groups, Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences . Volume 10 ). Akademie Verlag, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-05-003639-7 , pp. 169-198 , 173-174 .
  17. ↑ Jeffrey Johnson: German women in chemistry, 1895-1925 . In: NTM. Journal of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine . tape 6 , 1998, pp. 1-21, 65-90 , 4 .
  18. ^ Reports of the Association of Laboratory Board Members, page 2–011: Immerwahr Clara (203). Retrieved July 21, 2017 .
  19. ^ Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Haber, nee Immerwahr (1870–1915): Life, Work and Legacy . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , 2016, ISSN  1521-3749 , p. 437-448 , 440-441 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600035 , PMID 27099403 , PMC 4825402 (free full text).
  20. ↑ Richard Abegg, Guido Bodländer: The electro affinity, a new principle of chemical systematics . In: Journal of Inorganic Chemistry . tape 20 , 1899, pp. 453-499 .
  21. ↑ Richard Abegg, Clara Immerwahr: Note on the electrochemical behavior of fluorosilver and fluorine . In: Journal of physical chemistry . tape 32 , 1900, pp. 142-144 .
  22. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 127-128 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  23. ↑ Clara Immerwahr: Potentials of copper electrodes in solutions of analytically important copper deposits (May 1900) . In: Journal of Inorganic Chemistry . tape 24 , 1900, pp. 269-278 .
  24. ↑ a b Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Haber, nee Immerwahr (1870-1915): Life, Work and Legacy . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , 2016, ISSN  1521-3749 , p. 437-448 , 440-441 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600035 , PMID 27099403 , PMC 4825402 (free full text).
  25. ^ Clara Immerwahr: Contributions to the knowledge of the solubility of heavy metal precipitates by electrochemical means . In: Journal of Electrochemistry . tape 7 , no. 35 , 1901, ISSN  0005-9021 , p. 477-483 , doi : 10.1002 / bbpc.19010073502 .
  26. ↑ Our first female doctor . In: Breslauer Zeitung . 22nd December 1900.
  27. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 128-129 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  28. ↑ Albisetti 1988, 223-237.
  29. ↑ a b Cordula Tollmien : Two first doctorates. The mathematician Sofja Kowalewskaja and the chemist Julia Lermontowa . In: Renate Tobies (Ed.): "Despite all male culture". Women in math and science . Campus, Frankfurt 1997, ISBN 3-593-35749-6 , pp. 83-129 .
  30. ↑ Ronny Helfensteller: A chemist marriage in which the experimental apparatus are on an equal footing? Consideration of chemical lines from a historical-feminist perspective . State examination thesis. University of Rostock, 2018, p. 35 ( uni-rostock.de ).
  31. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 70-72 .
  32. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 125, 734 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  33. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 124-125 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  34. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 129-131 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  35. ↑ quoted from Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 129 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  36. ↑ Charlotte Haber: My life with Fritz Haber. Reflections of the past . Econ, Düsseldorf 1970, p. 89 .
  37. ↑ Angelika Ebbinghaus : Gerit von Leitner, The Clara Immerwahr case. Life for a humane science, Beck, Munich, 1993 (review) . In: 1999. Journal for Social History of the 20th and 21st Century . tape 8 , no. 4 , 1993, p. 125-131 , 127-128 .
  38. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 388-389 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  39. ^ Dietrich Stoltzenberg: Fritz Haber. Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew . VCH, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 3-527-29206-3 , pp. 352-354 .
  40. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 191-193 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  41. ↑ Ulla Fölsing: Ingenious relationships. Famous Couples in Science (=  Beck'sche Reihe . Volume 1300 ). Publisher = Beck Edition. Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-42100-8 , p. 136-145, 176 , 144 .
  42. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 193-194 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  43. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 191-195 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  44. ↑ quoted from Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 191 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  45. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 152 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  46. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 223-225 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  47. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 191 .
  48. ^ Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Immerwahr: A Life in the Shadow of Fritz Haber . In: Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, Florian Schmaltz, Martin Wolf (Eds.): One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences . Springer International Publishing, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-51663-9 , pp. 45-67 , 59 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-319-51664-6_4 .
  49. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 257, 268-271 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  50. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 324 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  51. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 395-397 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  52. ^ Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Haber, nee Immerwahr (1870–1915): Life, Work and Legacy . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , 2016, ISSN  1521-3749 , p. 437-448 , 445-446 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600035 , PMID 27099403 , PMC 4825402 (free full text).
  53. ^ Rolf-Dieter Müller: Gas War . In: Gerhard Hirschfeld, Gerd Krumeich, Irina Renz (eds.): Encyclopedia First World War. Updated and expanded study edition . 2nd Edition. UTB GmbH, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-8385-8551-2 , p. 519-520 , 520 .
  54. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 329-331 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  55. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 214-215 .
  56. ^ A b c Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 397 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  57. ↑ The report is in the archive of the history of the Max Planck Society (Haber Collection).
  58. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 393 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  59. ↑ Charlotte Haber: My life with Fritz Haber. Reflections of the past . Econ, Düsseldorf 1970, p. 90 .
  60. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 399 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  61. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 394 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  62. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 396-397 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  63. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 , pp. 215 .
  64. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 398, 795 . (Excerpts from Google Books ).
  65. ↑ Broadcast on WDR on October 18, 1990, quoted from Angelika Ebbinghaus : Gerit von Leitner, The Clara Immerwahr case. Life for a humane science, Beck, Munich, 1993 (review) . In: 1999. Journal for Social History of the 20th and 21st Century . tape 8 , no. 4 , 1993, p. 125-131 , 131 .
  66. ^ MF Perutz: The Cabinet of Dr. Haber . In: New York Review of Books . tape 43 , no. 8 , June 20, 1996, pp. 31–36 , 34 (Leitner does not name the source for this version in her Immerwahr-biography. Perutz claims to have asked Leitner directly, who then named this oral chain of transmission as the source.).
  67. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 398 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  68. ^ Friedrich Schmidt-Ott: Experienced and strived for. 1860-1950 . Steiner, Wiesbaden 1952, p. 124 .
  69. ↑ a b Eckart Henning: Suicide in Dahlem (1915): Unpublished letters from Edith Hahn and Lise Meitner about Dr. Clara Haber b. Always true . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , March 2016, p. 432-436 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600052 .
  70. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 399 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  71. ↑ Angelika Ebbinghaus : Gerit von Leitner, The Clara Immerwahr case. Life for a humane science, Beck, Munich, 1993 (review) . In: 1999. Journal for Social History of the 20th and 21st Century . tape 8 , no. 4 , 1993, p. 125-131 , 131 .
  72. ↑ a b Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Haber, nee Immerwahr (1870-1915): Life, Work and Legacy . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , 2016, ISSN  1521-3749 , p. 437–448 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600035 , PMID 27099403 , PMC 4825402 (free full text).
  73. ^ Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Immerwahr: A Life in the Shadow of Fritz Haber . In: Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, Florian Schmaltz, Martin Wolf (Eds.): One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences . Springer International Publishing, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-51663-9 , pp. 45-67 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-319-51664-6_4 .
  74. ^ Dietrich Stoltzenberg: Fritz Haber. Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew . VCH, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 3-527-29206-3 , pp. 630 .
  75. ^ Dietrich Stoltzenberg: Fritz Haber. Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew . VCH, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 3-527-29206-3 , pp. 365 .
  76. ^ Letter from LF Haber to the archive of the Max Planck Society of September 2, 1976, quoted from Eckart Henning: The "Haber Collection" in the archive for the history of the Max Planck Society in Berlin . In: Reports on the history of science . tape 13 , no. 1 , 1990, ISSN  0170-6233 , pp. 34-37 , 36 , doi : 10.1002 / bewi.19900130107 .
  77. ^ A b Morris Goran: The Story of Fritz Haber . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman 1967.
  78. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 16 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  79. ^ Eckart Henning: The "Haber Collection" in the archive for the history of the Max Planck Society in Berlin . In: Reports on the history of science . tape 13 , no. 1 , 1990, ISSN  0170-6233 , pp. 34-37 , doi : 10.1002 / bewi.19900130107 .
  80. ↑ a b Gerd Chmiel and others: "... in the peace of mankind, in the war of the fatherland ...". 75 years Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society. Comments on the past and present . Union of Public Services, Transport and Traffic, Berlin 1986, p. 23-27 .
  81. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 128 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  82. ↑ Regine Zott (Ed.): Scholars in for and against. Correspondence between Adolf v. Baeyer and Wilhelm Ostwald (with letters from and to Victor Meyer) as well as correspondence between Wilhelm Ostwald and Richard Abegg (with letters or excerpts from Fritz Haber and Clara Immerwahr as well as to Svante Arrhenius) . Lit, Münster 2002, ISBN 3-8258-6003-5 , 12-13, 306-310, 334-335, 400-401 .
  83. ↑ Ulla Fölsing: Ingenious relationships. Famous Couples in Science (=  Beck'sche Reihe . Volume 1300 ). Publisher = Beck Edition. Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-42100-8 , p. 136-145, 176 , 137 .
  84. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 398 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  85. ↑ Angelika Ebbinghaus : Gerit von Leitner, The Clara Immerwahr case. Life for a humane science, Beck, Munich, 1993 (review) . In: 1999. Journal for Social History of the 20th and 21st Century . tape 8 , no. 4 , 1993, p. 125-131 , 127-128 .
  86. ↑ Ronny Helfensteller: A chemist marriage in which the experimental apparatus are on an equal footing? Consideration of chemical lines from a historical-feminist perspective . State examination thesis. University of Rostock, 2018, p. 44–45 ( uni-rostock.de ).
  87. ↑ Hideko Tamaru Oyama: Setsuro Tamaru and Fritz Haber: Links between Japan and Germany in Science and Technology: Setsuro Tamaru and Fritz Haber: Links between Japan and Germany in Science and Technology . In: The Chemical Record . tape 15 , no. 2 , April 2015, p. 535-549 , 539-541 , doi : 10.1002 / tcr.201402086 .
  88. ^ A b Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 394-395 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  89. ^ Morris Goran: The Story of Fritz Haber . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman 1967, pp. 71 .
  90. ↑ Gerd Chmiel and others: "... in the peace of humanity, in the war of the fatherland ...". 75 years Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society. Comments on the past and present . Union of Public Services, Transport and Traffic, Berlin 1986, p. 5-6 .
  91. ^ Short biography of Gerit von Leitner on the occasion of the award of the Carl von Ossietzky Medal in 2003. In: International League for Human Rights. December 13, 2003, accessed January 19, 2020 .
  92. ↑ Gerit Kokula born von Leitner: Marble Lutrophores . Dissertation University of Munich 1965. Munich 1974, curriculum vitae.
  93. ↑ Gerit Kokula: Against perversion. About the lost battle of the chemist Clara Immerwahr . In: Tagesspiegel . December 29, 1991, p. 4 .
  94. ↑ Gerit von Leitner: The case of Clara Immerwahr. Living for a humane science . Beck, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-406-37114-0 .
  95. ↑ Angelika Ebbinghaus : Gerit von Leitner, The Clara Immerwahr case. Life for a humane science, Beck, Munich, 1993 (review) . In: 1999. Journal for Social History of the 20th and 21st Century . tape 8 , no. 4 , 1993, p. 125-131 .
  96. ^ A b c Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Immerwahr: A Life in the Shadow of Fritz Haber . In: Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann, Jürgen Renn, Florian Schmaltz, Martin Wolf (Eds.): One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences . Springer International Publishing, Cham 2017, ISBN 978-3-319-51663-9 , pp. 45-67 , 45-46, 60-63 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-319-51664-6_4 .
  97. ^ Margit Szöllösi-Janze: Fritz Haber 1868–1934. A biography . CH Beck, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-406-43548-3 , p. 18 . (Excerpts from Google Books )
  98. ↑ Volker Ullrich: The destruction of a woman . In: The time . June 4, 1993 ( zeit.de ).
  99. ^ Dietrich Stoltzenberg: Fritz Haber. Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew . VCH, Weinheim 1994, ISBN 3-527-29206-3 .
  100. ^ Gabriele Metzler: Dietrich Stoltzenberg, Fritz Haber. Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew (review) . In: Historical magazine . tape 262 , no. 1 , February 1996, p. 293-295 .
  101. ↑ Jeffrey A. Johnson: Dietrich Stoltzenberg. Fritz Haber: Chemist, Nobel Prize Winner, German, Jew (review) . In: Isis . tape 86 , no. 3 , 1995, p. 518-519 .
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  107. ↑ Jeffrey A. Johnson: Margit Szöllösi-Janze. Fritz Haber, 1868–1934 (review) . In: Isis . tape 90 , no. 4 , 1999, p. 840 .
  108. ↑ Elisabeth Boedeker (Ed.): 25 years of women's studies in Germany. Directory of doctoral theses by women 1908–1933 . Trute, Hannover 1939, p. LXI .
  109. ^ Judith Rauch: Clara 1915 . In: Emma . July 1989, p. 12 ( emma.de ).
  110. ↑ Angelika Ebbinghaus : Gerit von Leitner, The Clara Immerwahr case. Life for a humane science, Beck, Munich, 1993 (review) . In: 1999. Journal for Social History of the 20th and 21st Century . tape 8 , no. 4 , 1993, p. 125-131 , 125 .
  111. ↑ a b Eckart Henning: Suicide in Dahlem (1915): Unpublished letters from Edith Hahn and Lise Meitner about Dr. Clara Haber b. Always true . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , March 2016, p. 432-436 , 432-433 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600052 .
  112. ↑ Christine Roloff: Clara Immerwahr, married. Haber (1870-1915). First female German chemist to do a doctorate at a German university . In: Anne Schlüter (Ed.): Pioneers, Feminists, Career Women? On the history of women's studies in Germany (=  women in history and society . Volume 22 ). Centaurus, Pfaffenweiler 1992, ISBN 3-89085-419-2 , p. 93-96 , 94 .
  113. ↑ Bretislav Friedrich and Dieter Hoffmann (2017, p. 61) cite reviews in the following newspapers and magazines: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , Frankfurter Rundschau , Die Welt , Süddeutsche Zeitung , Die Tageszeitung , Sächsische Zeitung , Tagesspiegel , Westfalen-Blatt , Main- Echo , Emsdettener Tageblatt , Emma .
  114. ↑ Ulla Fölsing: Ingenious relationships. Famous Couples in Science (=  Beck'sche Reihe . Volume 1300 ). Publisher = Beck Edition. Munich 1999, ISBN 3-406-42100-8 , p. 136-145, 176 , 137 .
  115. ↑ a b Radio documentary "Late Icon for Peace: Clara Immerwahr" on SWR2 Wissen , author Rainer Volk, broadcast on April 30, 2014.
  116. ↑ Half of Life - Femina Doctissima Clara Immerwahr . In: HörDat . ( hördat.de [PDF; accessed December 26, 2019]).
  117. ^ Tony Harrison: Square Rounds. Verse drama. Verlag Faber & Faber, 1992, ISBN 0-571-16868-X .
  118. ↑ a b Susan V. Meschel: A Modern Dilemma for Chemistry and Civic Responsibility: The Tragic Life of Clara Immerwahr . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 638 , no. 3–4 , March 2012, pp. 603-609 , 608 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201100409 .
  119. ^ Claudia Reinhardt: Killing Me Softly - types of death . Aviva, Berlin 2004, ISBN 978-3-932338-21-2 , pp. 100 .
  120. ^ Sabine Friedrich: Immerwahr . Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-423-24610-1 .
  121. ↑ Haber. In: IMDb. Retrieved December 26, 2019 .
  122. ↑ Susan V. Meschel: A Modern Dilemma for Chemistry and Civic Responsibility: The Tragic Life of Clara Immerwahr . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 638 , no. 3–4 , March 2012, pp. 603-609 , 609 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201100409 .
  123. ↑ Vern Thiessen: Einstein's gift . Playwrights Canada Press, Toronto 2003, pp. 51 .
  124. ↑ Clara Forever True. In: IMDb. Retrieved December 26, 2019 .
  125. ↑ Claudia Tieschky: “Clara Immerwahr” in the first - the little chemist yells. In: Süddeutsche Zeitung. May 28, 2014, accessed February 2, 2020 .
  126. ↑ Karin Fischer: The Forbidden Zone - perfect staging for the Salzburg Festival. In: Deutschlandfunk. July 31, 2014, accessed on December 29, 2019 (German).
  127. ^ Lyn Gardner: The Forbidden Zone review - Katie Mitchell probes the science of war . In: The Guardian . May 27, 2016, ISSN  0261-3077 ( theguardian.com [accessed December 29, 2019]).
  128. ^ Bretislav Friedrich, Dieter Hoffmann: Clara Haber, nee Immerwahr (1870–1915): Life, Work and Legacy . In: Journal of Inorganic and General Chemistry . tape 642 , no. 6 , 2016, ISSN  1521-3749 , p. 437–448 , 446 , doi : 10.1002 / zaac.201600035 , PMID 27099403 , PMC 4825402 (free full text).
  129. ↑ Hans-G. Hilscher, Dietrich Bleihöfer: Clara-Immerwahr-Strasse. In: Kiel Street Lexicon. Continued since 2005 by the Office for Building Regulations, Surveying and Geoinformation of the State Capital Kiel, as of February 2017 ( kiel.de ).
  130. ↑ street names. Meaning of the Hanau street names Ca - Cu. In: Hanau.de. Retrieved October 8, 2019 .
  131. ^ Clara-Immerwahr-Strasse. In: Vauban in the picture. Retrieved October 8, 2019 .
  132. ↑ Clara-Immerwahr-Weg in 50933 Cologne Braunsfeld (North Rhine-Westphalia). In: onlinestreet. Retrieved March 1, 2020 .
  133. ↑ Clara-Immerwahr-Straße in Lörrach on Google Maps.
  134. ↑ Template for information for the meeting of the district assembly on November 19, 2015 to correct the naming of a road on the premises of the CleanTech Business Park from “Clara-Immerwahr-Haber-Straße” to “Clara-Immerwahr-Straße”, Marzahn-Hellersdorf district office of Berlin, October 28, 2015, accessed on March 26, 2018 (PDF file).
  135. ^ Clara Immerwahr-Weg in Itzehoe. In: neue-strassen.de. July 2, 2016, accessed March 1, 2020 .
  136. ↑ Clara-Immerwahr-Strasse in 26723 Emden Larrelt (Lower Saxony). In: onlinestreet. Retrieved March 1, 2020 .
  137. ^ Clara-Immerwahr-Straße in 30966 Hemmingen Devese (Lower Saxony). In: onlinestreet. Retrieved March 1, 2020 .
  138. ^ Clara-Immerwahr-Straße in 32657 Lemgo Brake (North Rhine-Westphalia). In: onlinestreet. Retrieved March 1, 2020 .
  139. ↑ Clara-Immerwahr-Weg in 44227 Dortmund Eichlinghofen (North Rhine-Westphalia). In: onlinestreet. Retrieved March 1, 2020 .
  140. ↑ Clara-Immerwahr-Strasse in Moers. In: neue-strassen.de. August 7, 2019, accessed March 1, 2020 .
  141. ^ City of Kassel (ed.): Official street directory of Kassel . January 24, 2020, p. 8 ( kassel.de [PDF; accessed on March 1, 2020]).
  142. ^ Clara-Immerwahr-Strasse in Troisdorf. In: neue-strassen.de. September 10, 2019, accessed March 1, 2020 .
  143. ^ City of Butzbach (Hrsg.): Current street directory of the city of Butzbach . July 2018 ( stadt-butzbach.de [PDF; accessed on March 1, 2020]).
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  145. ↑ Clara-Immerwahr-Haber-Platz. Stadtwiki Karlsruhe, accessed on May 29, 2014.
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  147. ↑ Haberstraße divided and named after Clara Immerwahr. Green List in the Erlangen City Council, November 7, 2016, accessed on October 8, 2019 .
  148. ↑ Osman Murat Ülke awarded for moral courage. Clara Forever Award. In: IPPNW. March 20, 2007, accessed October 8, 2019 .
  149. ^ Clara Immerwahr Award. UniCat Cluster of Excellence at the Technical University of Berlin, accessed on October 8, 2019 .
  150. ↑ Thomas Jung: Clara Immerwahr Prize 2014 awarded to Jannette Kreusser. Technical University of Kaiserslautern, press release from February 4, 2015 at the Informationsdienst Wissenschaft (idw-online.de), accessed on February 4, 2015.
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on March 27, 2020 in this version .
personal data
SURNAME Always true, Clara
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Forever, Clara Helene (full name); Haber, Clara
BRIEF DESCRIPTION German chemist; second woman with a doctorate in chemistry in Germany
DATE OF BIRTH June 21, 1870
PLACE OF BIRTH Polkendorf near Breslau
DATE OF DEATH May 2, 1915
Place of death Dahlem near Berlin