Kydons

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Crete in antiquity with Cydonia ( lat. ) In the northwest

Kydonen ( Mycenaean ???? ku-do-ni-jo / Kudōnios ; ancient Greek Κύδωνες Kýdones or Κυδωνιάτας Kydoniátas ) is the name of a Bronze Age people on the Greek Mediterranean island of Crete . The ancient city ​​of Kydonia (Mycenaean ku-do-ni-ja / Kudōniā ; ancient Greek Κυδωνία Kydonía ) was named after them or their mythical king Kydon (Mycenaean ku-do / Kudōn ) . The Kydons count alongside the Eteocretariesas the oldest inhabitant of the island. Little is known about their origin and language.

Historical references

Literary sources

The Kydonen in are first mentioned in the Odyssey of Homer . They are listed there as an independent people on Crete alongside the Achaeans , Dorians , Pelasgians and Eteocreters, the "native Cretans". In Canto 19 of the Odyssey, lines 172 to 179, it says:

Κρήτη τις γαῖ 'ἔστι μέσῳ ἐνὶ οἴνοπι πόντῳ,
καλὴ καὶ πίειρα, περίρρυτος · ἐν δ' ἄνθρωποι
πολλοὶ ἀπειρέσιοι, καὶ ἐννήκοντα πόληες · -
ἄλλη δ 'ἄλλων γλῶσσα μεμιγμένη · ἐν μὲν Ἀχαιοί,
ἐν δ' Ἐτεόκρητες μεγαλήτορες, ἐν .DELTA..di-elect cons Κύδωνες
Δωριέες τε τριχάικες δῖοί τε Πελασγοί · -
τῇσι δ 'ἐνὶ Κνωσός, μεγάλη πόλις, ἔνθα τε Μίνως
ἐννέωροε βασλοευ εάτς μτττστστσσσοευεάιὸς μαγσοσς μτστστστστστστστστστστστστσστστστστσστστσσοεματς

“Crete is a land in the dark rolling seas,
fertile and graceful and flowing all around. There live
where countless people, and their cities are ninety:
peoples of various stem and many languages. There live
there Achaeans, Kydonen and indigenous Cretans,
Dorians which verteilet three times, and noble Pelasgians.
Their kings city is Knossos, where Minos
reigned, who talked to Zeus, the great god, at the age of nine. "

The German translation of the original Greek text given here comes from Johann Heinrich Voss from the year 1781. Already in the 3rd song of the Odyssey, which deals with the return of Menelaus from Troy after the end of the Trojan War , the Kydons are mentioned in line 292, there as a resident of the banks of the Iardanos (also transcribed Jardanos ):

ἔνθα διατμήξας τὰς μὲν Κρήτῃ ἐπέλασσεν,
ἧχι Κύδωνες ἔναιον Ἰαρδάνου ἀμφὶ ῥέεθρα.
.DELTA..di-elect cons τις λισσὴ αἰπεῖά τε ἔστι εἰς ἅλα πέτρη
ἐσχατιῇ Γόρτυνος ἐν ἠεροειδέι πόντῳ ·
ἔνθα νότος μέγα κῦμα ποτὶ σκαιὸν ῥίον ὠθεῖ,
ἐς Φαιστόν, μικρὸς δὲ λίθος μέγα κῦμ 'ἀποέργει.
αἱ μὲν ἄρ 'ἔνθ' ἦλθον, σπουδῇ δ 'ἤλυξαν ὄλεθρον
ἄνδρες, ἀτὰρ νῆάς γε ποτὶ σπιλάδεσιν ἔαξαν

“Suddenly he scattered the ships; most of them he ended up in Crete,
where the Kydon people of Iardanos live on the banks.
At the Gordynian frontier, in the dark billowing sea,
a smooth rock towers against the urgent floods,
which the mighty south
storms on the left mountain before Phaistos ; and the little rock restrains great surging waters.
Most of them came there; and scarcely escaped ruin,
nor the men, the ships, the surf smashed against the cliffs. "

In the epic Aeneid of Virgil , which tells one of the founding myths of the Roman Empire on the basis of earlier traditions , the Kydonen are briefly mentioned in book 12 in line 858. Lines 856 to 860 in Wilhelm Hertzberg's translation from 1859 have the following content:

non secus ac nervo per nubem impulsa sagitta,
armatam saevi Parthus quam felle veneni,
Parthus sive Cydon, telum immedicabile, torsit,
stridens et celeris incognita transilit umbras:
talis se sata Nocte tulit terrasque petivit.

“Like an arrow, thrown from the string through high clouds,
which the Parthians
or Kydone soaked in the bilious juice of malevolent poison and throws it as an ominous projectile,
whizzing away through the fleeting shadows, recognized by no one,
So the daughter of the night also flew down to the Earth."'

The Kydonen were also briefly mentioned in a letter from an anonymous author to Emperor Constantine I from AD 310. There it says (in the translation by Brigitte Müller-Rettig from 1990): “Because no spears of the Persians or Kydonen have reached their goal with as sure a throw as you at the right time stood by your father, who set out to leave the world, as a companion and all his worries. which he thought in foreboding and secretive heart, relieved by the certainty of your presence. "

The historian and geographer Strabon (around 63 BC - after 23 AD) refers in his Geôgraphiká (Γεωγραφικά) about Staphylos from Naukratis to Homer and settled the Kydonen in the west of the island of Crete, which were already historical at that time. He described them next to the “real Cretans” (Ἐτεόϰρητες Ἐteókrētes ) in the south as “probably indigenous”, while the Dorians later immigrated to the east. At the same time, however, Strabo states that the small town of Praisos with the sanctuary of Dictaean Zeus in the east of the island belonged to the Eteocretaries. Likewise, Strabon's settlement information does not agree with the generally accepted theses about the Doric conquest of Crete during the " Doric migration ", according to which the Dorians settled the island from the center to the west, displacing the Eteocretes to the east. A restriction of the Kydonen to the west is therefore also not guaranteed.

The city of Kydonia

Minoan excavations in Chania

Often the term Kydonen is not used as a popular name, but as a name for the inhabitants of the city of Kydonia. The name of the city on the north-west coast of Crete, where today's Chania rises, has been handed down in different spellings. Already existing in the Middle Minoan period, during excavations in Knossos inscriptions were found in both linear A and B , on which the name Kydonias is recorded. In the Minoan linear script A (around 2000–1400 BC) this was KU.DO.NI , in the Mycenaean linear script B (around 1440–1180 BC) it was transcribed ku-do-ni-ja . From these original forms of the name, the ancient Greek Kydonia emerged , which was written in the time of the Roman Empire Cydonia , as the city is recorded on the Peutinger tablet .

Excavations on the Kastelli hill in Chania since 1964 brought to light finds from the late Neolithic to the Geometric Period . Among them were vessel fragments with painted characters of the linear letter B. They were dated to the late Minoan epoch III B of the post-palace period. The written testimony on the fragment of a vascular occlusion was the first linear B font to be found outside of Knossos. Two interiors of a house in the style of a Minoan megaron with a paved floor and mortar walls give evidence of the settlement of Kydonia in the late Minoan-Mycenaean period. The Mycenaean era ended from 1100 BC. With the immigration of the Dorians and the entry into the non-written time of the Dark Centuries . From the following archaic period there is no evidence of a Kydonen people in Crete; the inhabitants of Kydonia were counted among the Greeks .

interpretation

To classify the Kydonen as a possible people on Crete in the 2nd millennium BC Chr. A comprehensive view of the still controversial settlement history of the island seems necessary. Based on the information provided by the above-mentioned ancient authors, two "probably indigenous" peoples, as Strabo writes, settled on Crete alongside the Pelasgians, Achaeans and Dorians who later immigrated. Some are called Kydons , others as Eteocretes . Both are directly opposed to each other in Homer, "Kydons and indigenous Cretans" or "true Cretans", as if the term Kydones were a general term for the inhabitants of Crete, but these had to be distinguished from the "actual" native inhabitants of the island. In such a way that they were neither subject to the Eteocretaries, nor spoke their language or practiced religion. It should be noted that the Kydonen to Homer "of Iardanos bank" inhabited, so could not be limited to the town of Kydonia, as these (as well as Chania today) was at no flow.

designation

Symbolic representation: “Prisoner Keftiu ” in the temple of Ramses II in Abydos

When accepting the word Kydonen or its Mycenaean equivalent ku-do-ni-jo as a people's denomination of origin, ie as “inhabitants of Crete” (the ending “jo” stands for the people's name (ethnicon), the inhabitants of ku-do -ni ), not only for the city dwellers of Kydonia, a similarity with possible names of the island in other languages ​​is striking. The Keftiu / Kafta (Kftjw / Kft; from Kaftar ) mentioned in ancient Egyptian texts is both a geographical name for Crete ( Old Testament Kaphtor , Kaptā / ōr) and its inhabitants. Keftiu is documented as early as the Second Intermediate Period in Egypt in the Papyrus Leiden I 344 (created 1840–1700 BC), which reports as a copy of similar embalming techniques. It is possible that the original presentation of the papyrus dates to the 12th dynasty (20th century BC) and refers to the beginning of the first intermediate period (23rd / 22nd century BC):

“Nobody sails north to Byblos today . Where should we get cedars for our mummies from? […] The colonels were embalmed with the oil made from it, as in the distant Keftiu. But they don't come anymore. "

- Papyrus Leiden 334, III

On a statue base inscription with, among other things, Aegean lists of place names from the mortuary temple of Amenophis III. (around 1390–1352 BC) the name Kutunaja was found for the city of Kydonia, whereby the changing initial "t" instead of "d" is not unusual in the ancient Egyptian language . In addition, letters were often shifted when a word was adopted in another language, for example in the case of the Mycenaean Su-ki-ri-ta / Sugrita to the ancient Greek Sybrita or from the ancient Greek Eleutherna to the modern Greek Eleftherna . In Bilingue the Canopus Decree v of 238th As in other Ptolemaic sources, the ancient Egyptian Keftiu is translated with the Greek Φοινίκη (Phoiníkē) , which means the land of Phenicia . The Phoenicians are called Fenchu ​​(Fnḫw) in other ancient Egyptian texts , translated as “tree fellers ” in connection with the tree determinative . In the ancient Egyptian New Kingdom, however, the islands of the eastern Mediterranean, including Crete, were considered the islands of the Fenchu .

Timber transport of Lebanon cedars ( Assyrian representation from Dur Scharrukin )

The Phoenicians have been recorded in Greece since Homer as Φοίνιϰες (Phoinikes) , in Mycenaean Greek possibly as po-ni-ki-jo on linear B tables from Knossos , which is perhaps a derivation from the ancient Egyptian Fenchu . The Fenchu appear earlier among the Egyptians, namely in a victory inscription Thutmose II (around 1492 to 1479 BC) as the Egyptian sovereign territory of the "Lands of Fenchu" (city-states) in connection with Retjenu and on a memorial stone Seti I. (around 1323–1279 BC) for the Chapel of Ramses I in Abydos , in whose inscription Sethos prides himself on having "destroyed the lands of the Fenchu". However, the most important city-states of the Phoenicians on the Levant coast , such as Tire , Byblos or Sidon , are much older. This is how already between the 18th and 15th centuries BC BC in the country called Retjenu by the Egyptians, a script that is known today as the Byblos script . In addition, connections between Crete and the hinterland of the Levant coast, the kingdom of Qatna , are archaeologically proven. 3,000 Minoan fresco fragments from before 1340 BC were made from rubble that had fallen into a well house. BC salvaged.

Minoan fresco from Auaris

Politically, the residents of Retjenu posed a threat even to Egypt. Their expansion peaked between 1719 and 1692 BC. When the Hyksos took power over Lower Egypt . Minoan finds are known from their capital Auaris , in Egyptian Hut-waret (Ḥw.t-wˁr.t) , which indicate close ties between the Hyksos and the Minoan culture on Crete. The Hyksos probably consisted to a large extent of Amurrites and other tribes from Canaan and the Syrian - Lebanese coastal areas, so they were Semites like the Phoenicians . The Greek mythology refers to close relationships of Crete to the Semitic peoples of the Levantine coast. Phoinix , the progenitor of the Phoenicians, is named there as the brother of Europa who was kidnapped by Zeus to Crete . Both Phoinix and Europa are children of King Agenor of Sidon or Tire. Together with his brothers Kadmos and Kilix , Phoinix searched the entire eastern Mediterranean for the kidnapped sister. In Homer's Iliad , Phoinix is in Canto 14, line 321, but the father of Europa.

origin

The territorial expansion of the seafaring peoples of the Levant in the 2nd millennium BC BC is an important aspect in relation to the largest island in the Aegean region. Ernst Assmann already assumed that the Kydons in Crete had a Semitic descent. To do this, he used the interpretation of names that were associated with the Kydonen, such as the river Iardanos mentioned by Homer . Assmann relates this to the Hebrew term jarden for "river", from which the river name Jordan goes back. The Cretan Iardanos is mostly identified with the current Chekolimenos (Χεκολημένος) west of Chania. Iardanos is still the name of a Greek community in the prefecture of Elis in the Peloponnese , where there was a temple of Athena Kydonia near Phrixa in the Pisatis . This is strange in so far as the Kydons on Crete did not worship Athene but Diktynna , a female nature deity who emerged from the Gortynian nymph Britomartis and was therefore also called Britomartis Diktynna . It later merged with the Doric Artemis to form Artemis Diktynna , of which not only the Cretan temple but also the Peloponnese are attested. Except in Laconia , the temples of Diktynna were almost exclusively near the sea, in harbors or on foothills . She was later placed as a sister to Apollon Delphinios .

Eastern Mediterranean Cultures (1400 BC)

The cult of Apollo was also widespread in Crete; the god himself is said to have manned the guard of his temple in Delphi with Cretan archers under the hero Kastalios . Kastalios means "archer of my God" according to Assmann, according to Hebrew kassath and Aramaic kastha for "archer" and eli for "my God". Assmann also derives the name of Apollo from Semitic, namely from the Assyrian apalu , a verb for divine revelations and prophecies. The ancestral hero of the Kydons, the mythical King Kydon, was regarded as the son of Apollo (according to other sources, Hermes ) and Akakallis , which means that Apollo on Crete must first be understood as a Kydonian deity. Assmann also suspects a Semitic origin in the name of the Akakallis, which was transformed into Doric Greek. The cult of Apollo was not limited to the west of Crete. In the center of Gortyn , in the Pythion district , there was a sanctuary of God. The word Pythion also seems to be of Semitic origin (from Hebrew pethen , Aramaic (targ.) Pithna , Arabic pathan for "snake"), which belongs to the python of Apollo mythology. Assmann is also considering a Semitic origin of the name for the name of the port city Leben, south of Gortyn, near today's Lendas , derived from the Hebrew-Phoenician lebi / labi for "lion" and named after a lion-like rock on the shore, the "lion of the Rhea ", later as "lion's cap" (Λέον) named. From the south coast of Crete, contacts to the Levantine coast are known from later times. During excavations in Kommos, a Phoenician shrine from around 800 BC was found. Found.

Fragments of Linear A tablets
Minoan pottery

The hypothesis of the Semitic origin of the Kydones is countered by the fact that there are many indications of immigration from Asia Minor or from mainland Greece to Crete. This includes above all mythological and cultic similarities. With regard to mainland Greece, on the other hand, it can be assumed that the Achaeans there were influenced by the Minoan Crete. The later Mycenaean culture has a lot in common with the Minoan culture. The mainland Greeks adopted Minoan ceramic shapes and motifs and after a weakening of the Minoans around 1450 BC. The Mycenaean linear script B developed from the older Minoan linear script A. The cult of Diktynna , based on the nymph Britomartis , is originally Cretan and spreads from there to the mainland in the Peloponnese spread. In the opposite direction, the cult of Artemis was only brought to Crete at the time of the Doric migration.

The descent of the majority of today's Cretans from Asia Minor has meanwhile been genetically proven. DNA analyzes of 193 islanders were compared in 2008 by Constantinos Triantafyllidis from the Aristotle University in Thessaloniki with samples from Neolithic sites. There was no match of haplotypes in the genetic material for mainland Greece , but with DNA samples from Anatolia . Mainland Greek genetic material was more like that of other areas of the Balkan Peninsula . The cult of Cretan Zeus also points to the east, where a weather god was worshiped throughout Asia Minor and Mesopotamia , who operated under different names, but like Zeus was provided with attributes such as lightning and bull, and sometimes a helmet ( Baal ). Both as Teššup the Hurrian , whose son was represented in the form of a bull with the sun goddess Ḫepat , Šarruma , as well as Tarḫunna among the Hittites , he was the supreme god of the pantheon . With the Luwians he was called Tarḫunt and with the pre-Indo-European Hattiern Taru .

While little is known about the Hattier, in whose area the Hittites later established their empire, we know about the Luwians, whose traces have been found from the south-east coast of Asia Minor via western Anatolia ( Arzawa ) to Troy , that they were in possession of hieroglyphic writing. the hieroglyphic Luwish . The Minoans also used hieroglyphic writing in the form of the Cretan hieroglyphs . Whether both forms of writing come from a common original or whether they influenced each other has not yet been researched, but they seem distantly related. The spread of female deities also points to Anatolia as the original home of the Cretans. There is a goddess among lions who is just as reminiscent of the Asian mother goddess Cybele as of Rhea, the mother of Zeus. The cult of the nymph Adrasteia , a daughter of the Cretan king Melissus, is also connected with her . A shield goddess recalls the archetype of the Greek Athena , whose name is of non-Greek origin. Last but not least, in Asia Minor the weather god still held the labrys , the sacred double ax often depicted on Crete, in his hands and in Caria on the eastern Aegean coast the supreme god was once known as Zeus Labraundos .

Minoan culture

Find places of the Minoan culture in Crete

The hypothesis of the ethnic dichotomy of Crete in Minoan times is based on several indications. First of all, there are the popular names of the ancient authors, such as Homer and Strabo, where three of the five peoples mentioned can be viewed as non-Cretan. The Dorians came only after 1100 BC as a result of the Doric migration. From mainland Greece to the island. The listed Achaeans were carriers of the Mycenaean culture, which started from the Peloponnese after 1450 BC. Rule over the Minoans and probably formed only an upper class on Crete, while the Minoan culture, influenced by Mycenaeans, continued to exist in the late Minoan period. The scattered Pelasgians are also associated with mainland Greece, sometimes with Thessaly , sometimes with other parts of the country. Herodotus thinks that Pelasgia (Greek Πελασγία) is an older name for Greece and is identical to the mythical or poetic name Peloponnese .

In contrast, there are no such references to other regions with regard to Kydonen and Eteocreter. However, the actual folk names of the two population groups related to Crete are not known either. The names refer to the island's name or, in another interpretation of the Kydonen, to a city on the island. Only the latter would be imprecise on the part of the ancient authors, because one would have to ask why the inhabitants of the other Cretan-Minoan cities do not also appear as peoples of their cities, but rather were grouped together under Eteocretus. It is more likely that the city of Kydonia was named after the people of the Kydonen or their mythical king Kydon. So one can consider both the Kydones and the Eteocretes as indigenous peoples of Crete, of which the Eteocretes as "real Cretans" were probably resident on the island for a longer time.

Cult cave of Zeus in the Psiloritis massif
Minoan seal

A second clue could be the mythical division of the island into two parts. After that, Minos , after Herodotus and Thucydides, the founder of the thalassocracy in Crete, came from the connection between Zeus and Europa. However, the mythical progenitor of the Kydons, King Kydon, was the son of Apollo or Hermes, with a temple of Apollo in Gortyn being attested. The Apollo myth of the Kydons was contrasted with the myth of the Cretan Zeus, whose cult was practiced mainly in holy places in the Psiloritis massif and in the Dikti mountains , the Zeus caves of the Idean grotto and the cave of Psychro . According to the presumed origin of Zeus from Asia Minor and based on the fact that his myth and cult was older than that of Apollo, the settlement areas in the interior of Central and Eastern Crete should be regarded as those of the older people of the island, namely the Eteocretes. There were also differences between the individual regions of Crete in the worship of local deities, such as the Kydonian Britomartis Diktynna, later regarded as the sister of Apollo.

The simultaneous use of two fundamentally different writing systems over a longer period of time in the Minoan culture can be regarded as an important indication of a two-peoples hypothesis. This concerns the Cretan hieroglyphs (around 2000–1700 / 1600 BC) and the linear script A (around 2000–1400 BC). 137 pictograms are known of the Cretan hieroglyphs . It is a phonetic transcription of which signs appear on early Minoan seals and which are believed to have been used ornamentally there . In addition to this script, which is possibly related to Anatolian hieroglyphic scripts, the linear script A was used. In contrast to the Cretan hieroglyphs, which only appear on so-called seal stones, the linear A script was used more widely. Linear A consists of 70 phonetic symbols representing syllables and 100 sematographic (meaning-based) symbols that indicate sounds, concrete objects or abstract concepts. The American Semitist and Orientalist Cyrus H. Gordon took the view that the Minoan linear script A reproduces a Northwest Semitic dialect and connects the script with Ugaritic . This corresponds with the above-mentioned derivation of place and name names from the Semitic by Ernst Assmann. And Herodotus describes in his Histories , in the 5th book, chapter 58, about the Greek Kadmossage the Phoenician origin of the script.

Whether the Kydons were a Semitic people living on the west and possibly the south coast of Crete, who entered into a mutual relationship with the Eteocretaries who settled in the middle and east of the island, also on the coasts there, which today is known as the “Minoan culture “Is called remains open. Evidence suggests two peoples who inhabited the island in the Bronze Age of the second millennium BC and another two, the Pelasgians and the Achaeans, who immigrated in smaller numbers at different times. The Dorians seem to have immigrated from 1100 BC onwards. To have met far fewer people than were settled on the island in Minoan times. There are indications, as in the case of Kommos on the southwestern edge of the Messara plain on the south coast of Crete, that around 1200 BC BC coastal cities were abandoned. This is often associated with the " sea ​​peoples storm ", although devastation from this time is not documented on Crete. One of the causes of the sea peoples storm is now assumed to be climate change . After defensive battles against the sea peoples in the Nile Delta , the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses III settled. Parts of these peoples in Palestine whose culture suggest an origin from the Mycenaean region, to which Crete also belonged at that time. According to Israelite tradition, the Philistines , namesake for Palestine, came from the island of Kaphtor , which is interpreted as Crete .

Others

References and comments

  1. ^ Linear B Inscribed Artefacts from Khania. minoan.deaditerranean.com, accessed February 13, 2014 .
  2. ^ A b Fritz Gschnitzer : Early Greekism: Historical and Linguistic Contributions . In: Small writings on Greek and Roman antiquity . tape 1 . Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-515-07805-3 , pp. 142-143 ( books.google.de ).
  3. ^ Eduard Meyer : History of antiquity . First volume, 1884, p. 763 ( zeno.org ).
  4. ↑ ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙΑΣ - Ὀδυσσέως καὶ Πηνελόπης ὁμιλία. τὰ νίπτρα (ancient Greek original of the 19th song of the Odyssey). gottwein.de, accessed on August 11, 2010 .
  5. ↑ Odyssey - Odysseus bei Penelope, washing the feet (German translation of the 19th song of the Odyssey). gottwein.de, accessed on August 11, 2010 .
  6. ↑ ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙΑΣ - τὰ ἐν Πύλῳ (ancient Greek original of the 3rd song of the Odyssey). gottwein.de, accessed on August 11, 2010 .
  7. ^ Odyssey - Telemachos in Pylos (German translation of the third song of the Odyssey). gottwein.de, accessed on August 11, 2010 .
  8. ↑ Aeneid - LIBER XII (Latin original of the 12th book of the Aeneid). gottwein.de, accessed on August 13, 2010 .
  9. ↑ Aeneis - 12th book (German translation of the 12th book of the Aeneis). gottwein.de, accessed on August 13, 2010 .
  10. ↑ Brigitte Müller-Rettig (trans.): The Panegyricus of the year 310 on Constantine the Great - translation and historical-philological commentary (Chapter 8). agiw.fak1.tu-berlin.de, accessed on August 14, 2010 .
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  13. ↑ Tabula Peutingeriana. euratlas.net, accessed on August 12, 2010 .
  14. ↑ Jannis G. Tzedakis: Testimonials from the linear font B from Chania . In: Kadmos . tape 6 , issue 1, 1967, p. 106 .
  15. ↑ Karl Hoeck : Crete: An attempt to shed light on the mythology and history, the religion and constitution of this island from the earliest times to the Roman rule . , Second volume. Carl Eduard Rosenbusch, Göttingen 1828, p. 184-185 ( books.google.de ).
  16. ^ Gustaf Adolf Lehmann: Two hundred years of Homer research . In: Colloquium Rauricum, Volume 2 . BG Teubner, Stuttgart and Leipzig 1991, ISBN 3-519-07412-5 , pp. 106 ( books.google.de ).
  17. ↑ a b The equation of “Keftiu” with Crete is now undisputed in research. The general term "Keftiu ships" refers to the possibility of reaching distant Crete. Conversely, this does not automatically mean that “Keftiu ships” went to Crete or came from there; according to Eric H. Cline: The Oxford Handbook of the Bronze age Aegean (ca. 3000-1000 BC) . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010, ISBN 978-0-19-536550-4 , pp. 822-824.
  18. ^ John van Seters: A date for the "Admonitions" in the second intermediate period. In: The Journal of Egyptian Archeology 50, 1964, pp. 13-23.
  19. ↑ The admonitions of Ipuwer ( Memento of the original from October 30, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.reshafim.org.il
  20. ^ Gustaf Adolf Lehmann: Two hundred years of Homer research . In: Colloquium Rauricum, Volume 2 . BG Teubner, Stuttgart and Leipzig 1991, ISBN 3-519-07412-5 , pp. 108 ( books.google.de ).
  21. ^ John Chadwick : The Mycenaean world . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1976, ISBN 0-521-21077-1 , pp. 54 ( books.google.de ).
  22. ↑ Erich Ebeling , Bruno Meissner , Dietz-Otto Edzard : Reallexikon der Assyriologie . 6th volume. de Gruyter, Berlin 1983, ISBN 3-11-010051-7 , p. 229 ( books.google.de ).
  23. ↑ Derived from “fench” for “carpenter, carpenter”.
  24. ^ Assaf Yasur-Landau: The Philistines and Aegean Migration at the End of the Late Bronze Age . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-19162-3 , pp. 40 ( books.google.com ).
  25. ↑ Siegfried Schott : The memorial stone Sethos 'I for the chapel Ramses' I in Abydos . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1965, p. 20/21 .
  26. ↑ Feasts with ghosts - Minoan paintings on the walls. (No longer available online.) Bild-der-wissenschaft.de, archived from the original on June 15, 2015 ; Retrieved August 29, 2010 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bild-der-wissenschaft.de
  27. ↑ Ludwig Preller : Greek Mythology . Weidmannsche Buchhandlung (Karl Reimer), Berlin, p. 24 ( books.google.de ).
  28. ^ Iliad - Deception of Zeus (German translation of the 14th song of the Iliad). gottwein.de, accessed on August 20, 2010 .
  29. ↑ a b c Ernst Assmann : On the prehistory of Crete . In: Philologus. Journal of Classical Antiquity . No. 67 , 1908, pp. 168 ff . ( archive.org ).
  30. ↑ a b Ernst Assmann : On the prehistory of Crete . In: Philologus. Journal of Classical Antiquity . No. 67 , 1908, pp. 164 ( archive.org ).
  31. ^ A b Eduard Meyer : History of antiquity . First volume, 1884, p. 798 ( zeno.org ).
  32. ↑ Karl Hoeck : Crete: An attempt to shed light on the mythology and history, the religion and constitution of this island from the earliest times to the Roman rule . Second volume. Carl Eduard Rosenbusch, Göttingen 1828, p. 162 ( books.google.de ).
  33. ↑ Karl Hoeck : Crete: An attempt to shed light on the mythology and history, the religion and constitution of this island from the earliest times to the Roman rule . , Second volume. Carl Eduard Rosenbusch, Göttingen 1828, p. 176/177 ( books.google.de ).
  34. ↑ Johann Gottfried Gruber (Ed.): General Encyclopedia of Sciences and Arts . Section 1, A – G , Part 27. FA Brockhaus, Leipzig 1836, p. 130 ( books.google.de ).
  35. ^ Ernst Assmann : On the prehistory of Crete . In: Philologus. Journal of Classical Antiquity . No. 67 , 1908, pp. 166/167 ( archive.org ).
  36. ^ Ernst Assmann : On the prehistory of Crete . In: Philologus. Journal of Classical Antiquity . No. 67 , 1908, pp. 169-170 ( archive.org ).
  37. ^ Arthur Bernard Cook : Zeus: a study in ancient religion . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1914, pp. 414 ( books.google.de ).
  38. ^ Ernst Assmann : On the prehistory of Crete . In: Philologus. Journal of Classical Antiquity . No. 67 , 1908, pp. 168/169 ( archive.org ).
  39. ^ Kommos Excavations, Crete - The Greek Sanctuary. (No longer available online.) Fineart.utoronto.ca, archived from the original on August 18, 2010 ; Retrieved July 24, 2010 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.fineart.utoronto.ca
  40. ↑ Dirk Husemann: Paternity test for Pharaoh - How genetic research decodes archaeological riddles . Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-8062-2143-5 , p. 105 . Or The Minoans, DNA and all. And Differential Y-chromosome Anatolian influences on the Greek and Cretan Neolithic . ( Memento of the original from March 28, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 1.7 MB) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.atlascom.gr
  41. ^ History and geography of languages ​​and scripts - The development of scripts (Greece). brainworker.ch, archived from the original on January 11, 2014 ; Retrieved August 19, 2010 .
  42. ^ A b Ulrich Wilcken : Greek history in the context of antiquity . R. Oldenbourg, Munich 1973, ISBN 3-486-47690-4 , p. 41 ( books.google.de ).
  43. ↑ Konrad Schwenck , Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker : Etymologische-Mythologische Andeutungen . Büschler'sche Verlagbuchhandlung, Elberfeld 1823, p. 304 ( books.google.de ).
  44. ↑ Robert Fleischer : Artemis of Ephesus and related cult statues from Anatolia and Syria . Brill, Leiden 1973, ISBN 90-04-03677-6 , pp. 310 ( books.google.de ).
  45. ^ Fritz Gschnitzer : Early Greekism: Historical and Linguistic Contributions . In: Small writings on Greek and Roman antiquity . tape 1 . Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-515-07805-3 , pp. 279 ( books.google.de ).
  46. ↑ Karl Hoeck : Crete: An attempt to shed light on the mythology and history, the religion and constitution of this island from the earliest times to the Roman rule . Second volume. Carl Eduard Rosenbusch, Göttingen 1828, p. 207 ( books.google.de ).
  47. ^ Ivo Hajnal: The Mycenaean script - The pre-alphabetical scripts in Crete and Cyprus, The Minoan scripts of Crete (and mainland Greece): Typology and chronology. (PDF; 1.1 MB) uibk.ac.at, pp. 3–6 , archived from the original on July 10, 2012 ; Retrieved August 23, 2010 .
  48. ↑ Cretan hieroglyphs. obib.de, accessed on August 23, 2010 .
  49. ^ Ivo Hajnal: The Mycenaean script - The pre-alphabetical scripts in Crete and Cyprus, The Minoan scripts of Crete (and mainland Greece): Typology and chronology. (PDF; 1.1 MB) uibk.ac.at, p. 4 , archived from the original on July 10, 2012 ; Retrieved August 23, 2010 .
  50. ↑ Kretisch Linear A. obib.de, accessed on August 23, 2010 .
  51. ^ Gary A. Rendsburg: On Jan Best's "Decipherment" of Minoan Linear A. jewishstudies.rutgers.edu, archived from the original on March 6, 2014 ; Retrieved August 20, 2010 .
  52. ^ Robert R. Stieglitz: Minoan vessel names . In: Kadmos . tape 10 , issue 2, 1971, p. 110 .
  53. ↑ Herodotus: Ἱστοριῶν Ε, LVIII. hs-augsburg.de, accessed on August 23, 2010 .
  54. ^ Hans Zotter: Document theory. (PDF; 446 kB) (No longer available online.) Uni-graz.at, p. 9 , formerly in the original ; Retrieved August 23, 2010 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.uni-graz.at  
  55. ↑ The cause of the sea peoples migration - climate research proves a dramatic period of drought. (No longer available online.) Terra-x.zdf.de, archived from the original on December 3, 2016 ; Retrieved April 22, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.zdf.de
  56. ^ Eduard Meyer : History of antiquity . First volume, 1884, p. 803 ( zeno.org ).

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