The Gray Champion

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The Gray Champion is a short story published in 1835 by the American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne . There are several translations into German: The gray contender (German by Franz Blei , 1925), The gray protector (Friedrich Minckwitz, 1970), The gray fighter (Hannelore Neves, 1977) and The white-haired fighter ( Lore Krüger , 1979).

The action takes place in Boston in 1689 : When the hated royal governor Edmund Andros paraded through the city to intimidate the people, a mysterious old man in old puritan attire suddenly stands in his way and prophesies the end of his reign. Andros, unsettled, orders his soldiers to retreat, and the next day he is actually overthrown by a popular uprising. The "gray fighter" disappears as suddenly as he came, but it is said that he reappeared during the American Revolution and always comes back when New England is in danger. Hawthorne mixed up various historical events in The Gray Champion , on the one hand the Boston uprising of 1689 , on the other hand the legend of the "Angel of Hadley", according to which the regicide William Goffe is said to have saved the settlers of Hadley in 1675 during an Indian attack from dire need .

In literary studies, two opposing interpretations of the narrative compete. According to the traditional interpretation, the story, told with much patriotic pathos, is entirely in the service of a nationalist interpretation of American history, which portrays the Puritans of the 17th century and the revolutionaries of the 18th century as heroic freedom fighters alike. In contrast, since the 1960s, a growing number of critics have asserted Hawthorne's ironic intent; The Gray Champion is rather a critique of Puritanism and the uncritical ancestral piety of American historiography.

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A brief introduction explains the historical context of the story: It takes place in April 1689, at the time when King James II overruled the old rights of the New England colonies and appointed the "raw, unscrupulous soldier" Edmund Andros as their governor . Now rumors are spreading that an attempted coup led by the Prince of Orange is underway in England . The prospect that Jacob would be overthrown and Andros' tyrannical rule would soon end, creates a "boiling, silent excitement" in the streets, "the people smiled mysteriously at each other and cast bold looks at their oppressors."

In this tense situation the action begins. To demonstrate his power, Andros rides through Boston with his entourage one evening. His soldiers march on King Street like a “machine that relentlessly crushes everything that stands in its way”, followed by the governor's entourage with his drunken advisers like Benjamin Bullivant and the “wretched villain” Edward Randolph . From their steeds they mock the intimidated people, fear and anger spread. Old Governor Simon Bradstreet tries in vain to appease the crowd. A desperate voice warns that “Satan will soon deliver his masterpiece”, another that there will be a new Bartholomew Night and man and child will be slaughtered, a third sends a quick prayer to heaven: “Oh! Lord of hosts! Send your people an advocate! ”Suddenly an old man appears on the deserted street, armed with a stick and sword. He wears a pointed hat and a dark cloak, the "clothes of the old Puritans" of bygone decades. Although he is clearly a person of great authority, no one can say who this "old patriarch" is. To the amazement of the crowd, the old man strides resolutely towards the ranks of the soldiers, holds out his stick “like a marshal's baton” and tells them to stop. When Andros tells him how dare he stand in the way of King Jacob's governor, he replies in “dark serenity” and in seemingly ancient English:

I have stayed the march of a King himself, ere now […] I am here, Sir Governor, because the cry of an oppressed people hath disturbed me in my secret place; and beseeching this favor earnestly of the Lord, it was vouchsafed me to appear once again on earth, in the good old cause of his saints. And what speak ye of James? There is no longer a Popish tyrant on the throne of England, and by to-morrow noon, his name shall be a byword in this very street, where ye would make it a word of terror. Back, thou wast a governor, back! With this night thy power is ended — to-morrow, the prison! —Back, read I foretell the scaffold!

“I have already stood in the way of a king myself […] I am here, Herr Lieutenants, because the cry of an oppressed people has disturbed me in my secret place; and since I earnestly asked the Lord to do so, I was permitted to appear here on earth once more, in the name of the good old cause of his saints. And what are you talking about Jacob? There is no more papist tyrant on England's throne, and tomorrow noon his name will be a swear word, here on this street, where you want to make him a word of horror! Back to who you were once governor, back! Your power will end on this night - tomorrow, the prison! - back before I even prophesy the scaffold for you. "

These words stir the crowd even more, violence is in the air, and as the old man steadfastly blocks the way, the insecure Andros orders his soldiers to retreat. The next day the prophecy comes true: William of Orange is proclaimed king in New England, Andros is overthrown and thrown into prison. The "gray fighter" disappears as suddenly as he came. But the narrator has heard it said that he “reappears whenever the Puritans are called to testify to the spirit of their forefathers.” This is how he was seen eighty years later on King Street (at the time of the “ Boston Massacre ” ), most recently in the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill (which started the American Revolutionary War in 1775 ).

Work context

Origin, edition history

Nathaniel Hawthorne - painting by Charles Osgood , 1840

The Gray Champion first appeared in the January issue of New England Magazine in 1835 and, like all of Hawthorne's works before 1837, initially anonymously, but here with the note that the story was by the same author as The Gentle Boy (published in 1831 in the Token ). In 1837 Hawthorne published it in the first volume of his Twice-Told Tales collection , which is also his first publication with a name. The Gray Champion opens this volume, which has led many critics to suspect that Hawthorne attached particular importance to the narrative and wanted it to be understood as programmatic for his literary work. In the meantime, the publisher even planned the title The Gray Champion, and Other Tales for the collection, although it is unclear whether this title was Hawthorne's idea or that of his publisher.

Originally, The Gray Champion was very likely part of at least one of the other narrative cycles that Hawthorne created in previous years, but which never appeared in their entirety and are now lost. The majority of researchers who have grappled with this bibliographic question believe that The Gray Champion was part of the Provincial Tales collection , which Hawthorne compiled around 1828-1830. The exceptions include Nina Baym and J. Donald Crowley, one of the editors of today's authoritative work edition, the Centenary Edition of the Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne ; both of them attribute to Hawthorne's next project with reference to the time of publication, the framed narrative cycle The Story-Teller (around 1832–1834), which has also not been preserved in its entirety. The New England Magazine began serial printing of the work in 1834, but broke it off after two issues and from 1835 on only brought a few individual stories and other fragments regardless of the original context. Since The Gray Champion also appeared in this sheet , it stands to reason that this story was also removed from the story plate . Alfred Weber , who in 1973 submitted the most detailed attempt to reconstruct the early narrative cycles to date, believes this is likely, but not necessarily, that Hawthorne could also have submitted the story as well. Unlike with other stories, Weber cannot make any references to the parts of the story-teller's frame narration , which for him is explained by the fact that it was initially written for the Provincial Tales . Also Alison Easton suggested that Hawthorne history after the failure of the Provincial Tales for the Story-Teller took over.

The findings of the source research speak for an origin before 1830 and therefore for an assignment to the Provincial Tales : Between 1826 and 1830 Hawthorne read, as can be seen from the surviving lending registers of the Salem Athenæum , some historiographical works that the research as the main sources for The Gray Champion identified. Thematically, The Gray Champion corresponds to the basic idea of ​​the Provincial Tales , on which the various attempts at reconstruction can agree. As the title makes clear, their stories were "provincial", so dealt with Hawthorne's home in New England, especially with the colonial era (until independence, the Massachusetts colony was officially called the Province of Massachusetts Bay ). Weber works on the hypothesis that the collection included six other stories in addition to The Gray Champion , namely Alice Doane , The Gentle Boy , My Kinsman, Major Molineux , Roger Malvin's Burial , The Wives of the Dead, and The Maypole of Merry Mount . They all begin with a historical introduction that precedes the actual plot, which Weber thus identifies as a defining and programmatic feature of the collection.

References to other works by Hawthorne

The four historical-biographical sketches of famous personalities from colonial history, which Hawthorne published between 1830 and 1833, are closely related to the Provincial Tales . One of them, Dr. Bullivant , published January 11, 1831 in the Salem Gazette , is a portrait of Andros' advisor Benjamin Bullivant , also named in The Gray Champion . The sketches are of particular interest because of their explanations of the relationship between literature and historiography, which can be regarded as the poetological foundation of the Provincial Tales . In Sir William Phips' sketch , Hawthorne argues that scientific historiography may approach historical truth, but because of its duty to objectivity, it cannot make it vivid or emotionally tangible. This is the task of literature, but it must be given artistic freedom in dealing with historical facts. History and literature ( history and romance ) are therefore not opposites, but complementary approaches to the past. Hawthorne thus justifies the fact that as a writer he poaches in the historians' territory and uses their methods and findings, but still does not feel bound by their constraints. Alison Easton thinks that of all Provincial Tales The Gray Champion is most clearly written according to this programmatic specification, but the result does not seem to be very successful: the "invented" parts looked as if they had been grafted onto the well-known historical events; the narrator neglects to develop real characters with a subjective perspective, instead concentrates too much on political lectures and ultimately always adheres to the conventions of contemporary prose.

The majority of Hawthorne's short stories are set in the Puritan period, the rule of Andros is about the four Legends of the Province House (1838–1839). According to George Dekker , The Maypole of Merry Mount and The Gentle Boy are particularly closely related to The Gray Champion , since their plot is more closely linked to concrete events and historically guaranteed personalities in American history than, for example, Young Goodman Brown or Roger Malvin's Burial . All three stories are less “universal” or “timeless” than historical literature in the true sense of the word. Your plot is therefore part of a “great plot”: the further course of American history up to the revolution and beyond. The three stories also address the strictness and often cruelty of the Puritans' intransigence towards their political and religious opponents - The Maypole of Merry Mount describes how the soldiers of John Endecott put a violent end to the hustle and bustle in the settlement of the adventurer Thomas Morton in 1628 , The Gentle Boy is about the persecution of the Quakers after 1656. They all point more or less explicitly to the puritanical origin of the American “national character” and to the central event in American history, the revolution. Of particular interest for any investigation of Hawthorne's understanding of history is therefore his only narrative that is explicitly set at the time of the Revolution, namely My Kinsman, Major Molineux (1831). This story, too, takes place on the streets of Boston, and his portrayal of the revolutionaries as a violent, cruel mob shows telling parallels to The Gray Champion .

Historical background, sources

Edmund Andros.
Painting by Mary Beale , before 1700
The capture of Andros in a 19th century depiction

The uprising against Andros (1689)

The historical background of the legend is the political crisis that erupted on April 18, 1689 in an uprising by the citizens of Boston against the rule of the royal governor Edmund Andros , which ended with his removal and arrest. It began in 1684 when King Charles II. The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony recanted and Massachusetts in a colony transformed; In 1685 it was united with the neighboring colonies in a " Dominion of New England ". If the New England colonists had previously elected a governor from their own ranks annually, they now had to bow to the rule of a governor appointed by the king. Andros took up this office in 1687. The rejection that met him in Massachusetts, however, had not only current political reasons, but was deeply rooted in the history of the colony. Massachusetts had been founded in 1630 by Puritans who had fled to New England from the oppression of the English state church and were trying to establish a model society there based on their political and religious ideas. The fear of a renewed suppression of their faith was intensified in 1685 by the accession of the Catholic James II to the throne ; rumors spread that he wanted to make England a Catholic country again. In 1686, the founding of New England 's first Anglican church, the King's Chapel , put an end to the Puritan monopoly of belief. In this context it is to be understood why it is not even Andros himself who excites the minds of the Bostonians most violently in The Gray Champion , but the representative of the official church in his regalia. Politically, James II continued the absolutist policy of his predecessor, against which resistance soon arose in England itself. In the course of the Glorious Revolution he was finally forced to flee towards the end of 1688 and the Protestant William of Orange was crowned the new king. News of the fall of Jacob II due to the violent winter storms did not reach the colonies until the spring of 1689, but before that numerous rumors had been circulating and fueled the explosive atmosphere. In April a ship finally arrived with a copy of Wilhelm's proclamation as king. Andros had them confiscated and tried to keep them a secret, but the news spread in no time and the colonists got ready to take up arms. In this situation, the action of The Gray Champion sets in , namely on the eve of the uprising.

Horst Kruse identifies two main sources for the description of the uprising in The Gray Champion : On the one hand, Thomas Hutchinson's two-volume History of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts Bay (1764–1767) in an edition from 1795 with the associated source edition Collection of Original Papers Relative to the History of Massachusetts-Bay (1769) and Daniel Neal's History of New-England (1720). For example, the catalog-like listing of Andros' abuses of law (grievances) at the beginning of the story has a very similar equivalent in Hutchinson. In several places Hawthorne is apparently based on the declaration in Neal's full length from the pen of Cotton Mathers , which was read out at the height of the revolt in the Boston market square. In particular, Mather uses biblical diction to express his confidence that God will hear the desperate "complaints of the poor", elsewhere the "cries of the oppressed" ("Him, who hears the Cry of the Oppressed [...]") . At Hawthorne, desperate “calls” for divine assistance (“Oh! Lord of Hosts! Send your people an advocate”) rise from the crowd at the roadside. The old Simon Bradstreet admonishes them not to utter “loud shouts”, but later the “gray fighter” himself lets Andros know that the “cry of an oppressed people” had reached him and that he had asked the Lord himself for permission to appear once on earth. Hawthorne's narrator explicitly refers to Cotton Mather when he takes over his description of Edward Randolph as a "wretched villain" (Edward Randolph, our arch enemy, that "blasted wretch", as Cotton Mather calls him) . The passage in question is found in Mathers Parentator (1724).

The source research also makes it clear in which points Hawthorne leaves the guaranteed course of events behind. That the “gray fighter” is fictional should have been obvious to his readers. But even Andros' provocative ride on Boston King Street is Hawthorne's invention: In fact, there is absolutely no evidence in the sources that Andros was ever seen on horseback. This detail is significant, as it sharpens a symbolic contrast between the potentates on horseback in the middle of the street and the marginalized people below; Equestrian statues have long been considered the epitome of feudal society in the United States. For Kruse, the static street scene is the most carefully elaborated fiction of the story: Hawthorne carefully arranged selected personalities of the time into an allegorical group picture, knowingly also those like the “traitor” Joseph Dudley , who were not in Boston at the time, and the parvenu Benjamin Bullivant, the soldier Edmund Andros and the pompous priests of King's Chapel.

The "Angel of Hadley" (1675)

“The Dangers of Our Forefathers” - Depiction of Hadley's Angel in an engraving by John C. McRae after a painting by Frederick A. Chapman , after 1850.

The figure of the gray fighter is based on a local legend and refers to an earlier era of the Puritan colonial era. The development of the legend of the so-called "Angel of Hadley" has been thoroughly researched, but it is still unclear to what extent it is based on historical facts. It was first recorded in writing in 1764 in the first volume of Thomas Hutchinson's History of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts-Bay ; all later versions can be traced back to this one source. Using a local family tradition, Hutchinson reports that Hadley was surrounded by Indians in 1675 during the King Philip's War . The settlers were celebrating the service and would have been taken by surprise if an old man had not suddenly appeared and warned them of the danger. The resolute old man immediately organized the ranks of the defense, repulsed the attack, and then disappeared again without a trace. The anecdote can be found in Hutchinson's note on the history of the regicide judges , i.e. the judges who signed the death sentence against King Charles I in 1649 during the English Civil War . After the restoration of the House of Stuart on the royal throne in 1660, they in turn were to be prosecuted for this " regicide ". Three of them, John Dixwell, Edward Whalley and William Goffe , then fled to New England, and from 1664 were hidden in Hadley under the strictest secrecy by their Puritan fellow believers. The mysterious apparition of 1675 was therefore none other than the militarily experienced William Goffe, who left his hiding place for a short time in an hour of danger.

Sir Walter Scott, painting by Henry Raeburn , 1822.

Although it seems unthinkable that the presence of three famous men in a small settlement could remain hidden even from the neighbors for years, this notion apparently fired the imagination of Hutchinson's readers as well as the dramatic rescue from an emergency, the odor of regicide and not least the eerie, if not supernatural qualities of the anecdote. Over the next few decades, the legend was told over and over again and finally entered folklore. Hawthorne may have known Hutchinson's report, but the immediate model for The Gray Champion was Walter Scott's historical novel Peveril of the Peak (1822), with which the material also found its way into European literature. Hawthorne is just one of several American writers who reimported the legend in this way; other representations influenced by Scott are for example James Fenimore Cooper's novel The Wept of Wish-ton-Wish (1829) and James Nelson Barker's play Superstition (1826), which Hawthorne may also have known. Peveril of the Peak may even be the godfather of Hawthorne's choice of title: At one point Scott emphasizes the gray curls of the "Angel of Hadley," on another his gray eyes, and after his disappearance, he makes the settlers speculate that it is him an “inspired champion” must have acted (ie a “fighter” called by God or at least inspired by a soul). Hawthorne's choice of words sometimes reminds one of Scott, but a parallel at the end of the two stories stands out in particular. Scott says about the further fate of the mysterious warrior: "Perhaps his voice can be heard again in the field, should England need one of its most generous men" Towards the end of The Gray Champion there is a similar prophecy:

But should domestic tyranny oppress us, or the invader's step pollute our soil, still may the Gray Champion come, for he is the type of New England's hereditary spirit; and his shadowy march, on the eve of danger, must ever be the pledge, that New England's sons will vindicate their ancestry.

“But if ever tyrants from within our own ranks oppress us, or if the aggressor's foot ravages our homeland, then he may come, the gray advocate; for he is the model and model of the inherited spirit of New England; and his ghostly step on the eve of danger is forever the guarantee that New England's sons will remain worthy of their ancestors. "

With the Boston uprising Goffe can hardly be historically connected, he died around 1679. Hawthorne visited the grave of Goffes in New Haven in 1828 and the Judge's Cave , a cave in which the three "regicide" are said to have once hidden. However, he was not impressed and called the cave to his companion Horace Connolly the "greatest humbug in America", it was not even deep enough to bury a dead cat in it. At the time, Hawthorne could still rely on his readership to know the story of Goffes and to recognize his allusion:

And who was the Gray Champion? Perhaps his name might be found in the records of that stern Court of Justice, which passed a sentence, too mighty for the age, but glorious in all after-times, for its humbling lesson to the monarch and its high example to the subject.

“And who was the gray fighter? Perhaps his name might be found in the annals of the court that pronounced a verdict, too great for its time, but glorious in the eyes of the descendants, because of the lesson in humility he taught the monarch and the high example he gave gave to the people. "

After him, Delia Bacon and Harriet Beecher took up Stowe Goffe's biography, but the series of works about him was torn off in the second half of the 19th century and the material was largely forgotten. Mark L. Sargent suggests that this is related to the assassination attempt on Abraham Lincoln (1865); his murderer John Wilkes Booth justified his act as tyrannical murder.

Interpretations

Interpretation dispute

While Hawthorne's novels, especially The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables , had played a central role in the canon of American literature since Hawthorne's lifetime, literary scholarship “discovered” his short stories only in the second half of the 20th century; The initial spark was the publication of QD Leavis' essay Hawthorne as Poet (1951). The Gray Champion has been one of his more frequently discussed stories since then, but hardly because it was considered his most successful. Rather, it is precisely on this story that many critics drill out the central problem of irony for Hawthorne research . Hawthorne's prose is known for its ambiguity, for example Joel Porte emphasizes that Hawthorne often means exactly the opposite of what is apparently said. The difficulty of proving an ironic intention, i.e. of trying to infer the author's intention or disposition from the statements in his narrative , has become so central in the history of Hawthorne's reception that the term Hawthorne Question has established itself for it.

How few stories has The Gray Champion encouraged such attempts, because the hurray patriotism, or rather jingoism , which the narrator displays, can hardly be reconciled with the popular image of Hawthorne as a skeptic and astute observer of human and social abysses. The Gray Champion looks like a Rorschach picture . For the conventional reading, critics such as Ursula Brumm , Neal Frank Doubleday and Nina Baym stand . They take the narrator at his word and see the story as an expression of a patriotism that is both convinced and typical of the time; as recently as 1979, Lea Bertani Vozar Newman described this interpretation as predominant in her research overview. Since the 1960s, an increasing number of critics have read the text as a satirical pastiche : Hawthorne does not speak to his contemporaries according to the word, but rather ape them. The works of Frederick C. Crews (1966), Frederick Newberry (1973/1987), Michael J. Colacurcio (1984) and GR Thompson (1993) should be emphasized here .

Nationalist interpretations

The context of American national romanticism

As a young country that emerged from former English colonies after a revolution, the United States had a particular need to prove itself as a nation, above all to the "old" nations of Europe, but also to reassure itself. Historiography and literature were of particular importance. The writers were expected to refute the European prejudice of the "cultureless" Americans. In American historiography, soon after the revolution, the effort to prove the uniqueness and autonomy of the Americans even in the pre-revolutionary period and thus historically legitimize independence and the establishment of a nation becomes clear . The Gray Champion's diction and choice of topics should be understood in this cultural and ideological context .

In many respects the story corresponds to the “program” of American national romanticism , for example in the choice of the setting. Even in Washington Irving's Sketch Book (1819–1820), which was a model for Hawthorne in many ways, most of the stories are set in European locations. The two exceptions, Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow , which are set in rural New York, were most popular - although both stories are based on German myths. The Gray Champion, on the other hand, uses the “Angel of Hadley”, a genuinely American material that also bears the characteristics of a saga or legend : on the one hand, it links a guaranteed historical event with the fairytale idea of ​​a guardian angel, on the other hand, according to Hutchinson, it is rooted in the oral one Tradition is in a certain sense "popular" and thus not only a national, but also a typically romantic subject . Hawthorne was not the first to realize this; as early as 1815, William Tudor listed in an article in the North American Review memorable events in American history that were particularly suitable for literary editing, and recommended the "Angel of Hadley". The importance of the location is also emphasized by Henry James in his Hawthorne biography (1879). James, who himself left his native New England early and describes it here with slightly derisive distance, characterizes Hawthorne as a proud local patriot. He had done Massachusetts a great service when he breathed life into the "primitive annals" of the state, in order to make them at least picturesque. The city of Boston must be particularly grateful to him for The Gray Champion , which he highlights as a work of great beauty and, because of its economy, compares it to a cabinet piece . He also praises the lively descriptions of people.

Typological and nationalistic historiography

George Bancroft, 1846
“America and History” - The first panel in the “Frieze of American History” in the rotunda of the United States Capitol (1878) shows Columbia , the personification of the United States, with a Phrygian cap (liberty cap) . In the background you can see Puritan soldiers, in the foreground Klio , the muse of history.

In addition to the location, the specific historical background has also been chosen with care. The uprising against Andros in 1689 was often portrayed in 19th century American historiography as a kind of stage rehearsal for the American Revolution, even if the Puritans, known for their severity and fear of God, were only partially suited for the rebel role intended for them. George Bancroft in particular , the leading American historian of his time, describes the uprising as an early manifestation of a specifically American will for freedom that already existed at that time and an important stage in the development of a nation , who also captivates with a particularly pompous pathos . His twelve-volume History of the United States did not appear until 1834 and is out of the question as a direct model, but Hawthorne certainly knew his earlier writings. Bancroft's portrayal has often been compared to The Gray Champion , George Dekker even calls Hawthorne's prose her “fiction clone.” Hawthorne already points out in the first sentence that history seems to be repeating itself here, and the second makes use of the anti-monarchist invective , as found in Bancroft, but also in English Whig historians such as Thomas Babington Macaulay :

There was once a time when New England groaned under the actual pressure of heavier wrongs than those threatened ones which brought on the Revolution. James II, the bigoted successor of Charles the Voluptuous, had annulled the charters of all the colonies, and sent a harsh and unprincipled soldier to take away our liberties and endanger our religion. The administration of Sir Edmund Andros lacked scarcely a single characteristic of tyranny [...]

“There was a time when New England groaned under the real pressure of graver injustice than the only threatened injustice that ultimately led to the revolution. James II, the pious successor of Charles the Voluptuous, had declared the privileges of all colonies null and void and sent a crude, unscrupulous soldier over to endanger our freedoms and our religion. The government of Sir Edmund Andros was scarcely lacking a feature of tyranny [...] "

If one does not proceed from a parodistic intention of Hawthorne like many critics, one has to come to the conclusion that Hawthorne shares Bancroft's enthusiastic patriotism, if only because he ingratiates himself with his audience by seeing "our" freedoms in danger. Nina Baym thinks that The Gray Champion is "unequivocally patriotic, and his attitude towards the Puritans unreservedly affirmative," and Edward Wagenknecht that Hawthorne presents the "struggle of his ancestors against their opponents" as a contrast like "black and white" (that the fighter is gray escapes him, as GR Thompson notes). For Henry G. Fairbanks it is no less a triumph of patriotism than Protestantism , portrayed so vividly that it can still stir the mind today. Several of the other critics, who do not understand the text as satire, are embarrassed by Hawthorne's saber rattling despite their understanding of other times, customs and circumstances, such as Neal Frank Doubleday. Although he makes a few ironic nuances in the portrayal of the Puritans, the story as a whole is firmly anchored in the nationalistic historiography and literature of the time.

Bancroft's and Hawthorne's equation of the Boston uprising of 1689 with the American Revolution is rooted in the typological tradition that shaped Puritan historiography. According to the typological exegesis of the Bible , similarities between people and events in the Old Testament with those in the New Testament can be explained as divine promises. The typology was of paramount importance to the Puritans of New England, who used this instrument for understanding Scripture almost habitually in secular matters. In the hope that the promises of the New Testament would be fulfilled during their lifetime, they also looked for biblical equivalents for current political developments and natural phenomena and soon believed that they had actually found signs of providence everywhere. Long after the end of Puritanism and despite the advancing secularization, this puritanic trait continued to have an effect. Bancroft's and Hawthorne's comparison legitimizes the revolution not only with the assertion of historical continuity, but also at least implicitly gives it a meaning in the history of salvation. According to Peter Shaw, Hawthorne explicitly makes use of the vocabulary of the Puritan typology, the proleptic assertion of a "primitive democratic spirit" already prevalent among the Puritans in describing the "gray fighter" as the "pattern and model of the inherited spirit of New England " on the other hand correspond completely to the historical picture of the 19th century.

Allegorical and Mythical Qualities

Depiction of the sleeping Friedrich Barbarossa at the Kyffhäuser Monument (1896)

According to Ursula Brumm , the effectiveness of history for the purpose of patriotic edification is explained not so much by the rhetoric of the verbal level, but by its underlying allegorical and mythical properties. In the literal sense of the word, the composition of the street scene is allegorical, as several critics emphasize:

The whole scene was a picture of the condition of New England, and its moral, the deformity of any government that does not grow out of the nature of things and the character of the people.

"The whole scene was a representation of the situation in New England and its moral that any government that does not develop from the nature of the circumstances and from the character of the people is absurd."

In a more general sense, the typological comparison of the “two revolutions” is based on an allegorical method. According to Brumm, Walter Scott was the first to recognize the mythical potential of the story of the Angel of Hadley. Scott found in it an ancient and widespread material, the myth of the raptured " king in the mountains ", who one day will appear again to his people and lead them back to power and greatness. As Scott knew, one version of this myth was one of the most powerful narratives of the German national movement, namely the saga of the sleeping Friedrich Barbarossa, who sleeps in the Kyffhäuser but will one day return and restore the German imperial glory. Washington Irving , who was a frequent guest at Scott's Scottish country estate in his time in Europe, got to know the Kyffhauser saga through Scott and also echoed it in Rip Van Winkle , but more casually as a patriotic decoration of this more entertaining than political story. Scott underlined the mythical and timeless character of the figure of the "Angel of Hadley" in his description of the Indian attack in Peveril of the Peak , but did not make him a hero. As a conservative Tory and newly knight, Scott had little sympathy for a regicide and so ends the episode with a moralistic discussion of merit and guilt, good and bad.

The fact that the American king in the mountains is also a regicide on record should have seemed half as bad to Hawthorne, especially since the United States was born out of a rebellion against the British monarchy if not from murder. Hawthorne emphasizes the mythical traits of the "angel" even more than Scott by removing almost all individual traits from him - his name is not revealed here, there is not even a reference to his heroic deeds in Hadley. On the other hand, he made the historically specific reference to the act of regicide the dramatic turning point in history and thus gives the legend a new meaning. As an allegorical figure, according to Brumm, the "gray fighter" reconciles the contradictions of the New England character: like the Puritans and later the revolutionaries, he brings down a hierarchy and establishes a new one, questions authority, but at the same time demands it for himself . The Gray Champion is for Brumm a testimony to the “myth-making activity of a young nation”, but at the same time pursues a concrete political goal: at a time when America's political power center has shifted south, “he reminds the nation that the Puritans New England were the real pioneers of the rebellion and the true representatives of the free-independent spirit. "

Ironic interpretations

Since the 1960s there has been an increasing number of critics who suspect Hawthorne's ironic intention behind the alleged patriotic enthusiasm of the narrator, which on the one hand turns against the Puritans themselves, but on the other hand also against their appropriation by nationalist historiography. In his psychoanalytically influenced study The Sins of the Fathers (1966), Frederick C. Crews is less concerned with concrete historical-political statements than with Hawthorne's underlying image of people and society. For him, The Gray Champion represents the "hidden unity" or rather likeness of the antagonists, who would be portrayed as no less repressive than their royal oppressors, the Puritans. Ultimately, history shows that authority can only be trumped by even stronger authority; the "gray fighter" is next to Governor Andros, the King of England and the Pope of Rome, on the other hand also Simon Bradstreet and the other Puritan " patriarchs " only the strongest of various father figures who are concerned with the "childlike love" of the Bostonians Citizens compete. Crews and, a few years later, Newberry (1977) unanimously traced how irony is embedded in the structure of the narrative: accordingly, the story begins and ends with a patriotic hymn of praise typical of the time to the Puritans as proto-democratic revolutionaries, but their description is in the intervening ones Passages in a noticeable contrast.

Puritan soldiers in combat with Indians in a 19th century depiction

In fact, in the face of the threat, the Puritans at Hawthorne show more than usual their "strong, gloomy features" and, like the first Puritan settlers, trust again that "the blessing of heaven lies on their righteous cause," he also makes it clear that that their self-righteous religious fanaticism repeatedly led to bloodshed:

Old soldiers of the Parliament were here, too, smiling grimly at the thought that their aged arms might strike another blow against the house of Stuart. Here, also, were the veterans of King Philip's war, who had burned villages and slaughtered young and old, with pious fierceness, while the godly souls throughout the land were helping them with prayer.

"Old Parliament soldiers [veterans of the English Civil War] were there too, smiling grimly at the thought that their old arms might strike the Stuarts home again. Veterans from King Philip's war also stood here, who had burned down villages in a pious frenzy and slaughtered young and old, while godly souls throughout the country stood by their side in prayer. "

The Puritans are most angry at the sight of the Anglican priest in his regalia, which they saw as a paragon of papist arrogance and idolatry . But they themselves succumb to this outrage, because, as the narrator observes, their own clergy treat them "with the greatest reverence, as if their clothes were already sacred". Significantly, they disregard their most dignified patriarch, "good old Governor Bradstreet," who admonishes them to remain calm and "submit to constitutional authority." For crews, the irony of these passages is “overwhelming,” and Newberry, like Colacurcio, see them as incompatible with the democratic-patriotic rhetoric of the introduction. In its interpretation, however, the irony does not only emerge in retrospect from a modern understanding of history; rather, it is Hawthorne's fundamental authorial intention . Several critics see subtle hints in Hawthorne's choice of title that point to the ambiguity of the story. It is no coincidence that the old fighter is neither white nor black, but gray, so difficult to determine. In addition, The Gray Champion is at the top of the Twice-Told Tales , ie "stories told twice", which perhaps only reveal their meaning at second glance. GR Thompson explains the dual nature of these stories with a reception aesthetic model. For the unsuspecting “average” reader, the story functions as patriotic edification literature, in keeping with his expectations. The ideal implicit reader, on the other hand, is able to discern the subtle ironic hints of the author and the contradictions of the narrative. He sees the narrator figure, who in such a succinct way jubilates over the genocide of the Indians, as a parodistic bogeyman in the tradition of Swift's A Modest Proposal (1729).

As Newberry points out, the ambiguity is often inherent in Hawthorne's precise choice of words, for example in the allegorical interpretation of the street scene, as Hawthorne's narrator, according to Newberry, was careful not of the evil of this very special government, but of "every government" that " Disregard nature ”speaks, the accusation thus applies to Andros and the Puritans alike. Colacurcio draws attention to another subtle ambiguity: Towards the end of the story, the narrator exclaims about the gray fighter: Long, long may it be, ere he comes again! The may can be understood here on the one hand as a warning assumption - it could take a long time before the gray warrior reappears - or as an optative : "Long, long ", according to the narrator's wish, it may still take until the repressive "spirit the forefathers “make themselves felt again. Newberry and Colacurcio also point out that the "gray fighter" is repeatedly associated with the devil : When the voice in the crowd fears that "Satan will deliver his masterpiece," it obviously warns of an impending act of violence by Andros and his soldiers, but immediately after this exclamation the gray fighter appears on the street, and Bullivant scoffs at the alleged old man: “Without a doubt he intends to crush us with a proclamation from Old Noll [nickname for the devil] ! ”To support his thesis of the gray warrior as a messenger of Satan, Newberry also refers to the example of Scott, who at least implies that the angel of Hadley, as regicide, is in league with evil.

Hawthorne's narrator also seems to be quietly critical of the historical image on which the story is apparently based; when some hysterical voices fear that Andros is planning a new Bartholomew Night , he remarks dryly:

Neither was this rumor wholly discredited, although the wiser class believed the Governor's object somewhat less atrocious.

"And at least there were some who believed this rumor, even if the sensible among the people did not consider the governor's intentions to be quite so bloodthirsty."

According to Colacurcio, Hawthorne parodies the paranoid mockery and self-chastisement that Perry Miller , the founder of modern Puritan research, identified a century later as the defining motif of the Puritan sermons (“ jeremiads ”) of the late 17th century. For Newberry and Colacurcio, The Gray Champion ultimately does not represent a contribution to the nationalistic mythologization of the past, but rather deconstructs it through an ironic imitation of an ideological clutter of history that tries to whitewash incompatible contradictions. Thompson underlines the importance of this distinction: it makes the teleologically the difference between belief in progress (especially the American " Manifest Destiny ") and an ultimately meaningless and lawless course of world history.

However, this interpretation has not gone unchallenged. Against Colacurcio's remark that Hawthorne's narrator read too much Cotton Mather and too much George Bancroft, for example, George Dekker objects that this could just as well be applied to Hawthorne himself, and that the desire for a "subversive" Hawthorne reading makes Colacurcio's reading too biased; Ultimately, however, Dekker agrees that the story leaves room for both interpretations. Alison Easton recognizes the irony of the story, but it is so subtle that it is barely noticeable; consequently, for most readers, the story does no more than reproduce the nationalist ideology of the 19th century.

literature

expenditure

A digitized version of the initial publication can be found on the Cornell University Library website:

The first edition of the Twice-Told Tales can be found digitized on the website of the Internet Archive :

The modern standard edition of Hawthorne's works is The Centenary Edition of the Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne (edited by William Charvat, Roy Harvey Pearce et al., Ohio State University Press, Columbus OH 1962-1997; 23 volumes). The Gray Champion can be found here in Volume IX ( Twice-Told Tales , 1974), edited by Fredson Bowers and J. Donald Crowley , pp. 9-18. Numerous edited volumes of Hawthorne's short stories contain the story; A popular reading edition based on the Centenary Edition is:

An e-text can be found on the pages of Wikisource :

Wikisource: The Gray Champion  - Sources and full texts (English)

There are at least four translations into German:

  • The gray fighter . German by Franz Blei . In: Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Garden of Evil . Martin Maschler publishing house, Berlin 1925.
    • also in: Nathaniel Hawthorne: Dr. Heidegger's experiment. Stories and sketches . Edited by Ingeborg Hucke. Reclam jun., Leipzig 1977. (= Reclam's Universal Library , vol. 668)
    • without specifying the translator Franz Blei also in: Nathaniel Hawthorne: The garden of evil and other stories . Edited by RW Pinson. Magnus Verlag, Essen 1985, ISBN 3-88400-216-3 .
  • The gray protector . German by Friedrich Minckwitz. In: Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Gray Protector and Other Tales . Gustav Kiepenheuer Verlag, Weimar 1970.
  • The gray fighter . German by Hannelore Neves. In: Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Heavenly Railroad. Stories, sketches, forewords, reviews . With an afterword and comments by Hans-Joachim Lang . Winkler, Munich 1977, ISBN 3-538-06068-1 .
  • The white-haired fighter . German by Lore Krüger . in: Nathaniel Hawthorne: Mr. Higginbotham's Doom. Selected stories . Edited by Heinz Förster. Insel-Verlag, Leipzig 1979.

Secondary literature

  • Michael Davitt Bell: Hawthorne and the Historical Romance of New England . Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ 1971, ISBN 0-691-06136-X .
  • Ursula Brumm : A Regicide Judge as “Champion” of American Independence . In: Jahrbuch für Amerikastudien 21, 1976. pp. 177-186. German version: A “regicide” as a “champion” of American independence . In: Ursula Brumm: History and Wilderness in American Literature . Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1980, ISBN 3-503-01636-8 . Pp. 119-134. (= Basics of English and American Studies 11)
  • Michael J. Colacurcio : The Province of Piety: Moral History in Hawthorne's Early Tales. Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1984. Reprint: Duke University Press, Durham NC 1996, ISBN 0-8223-1572-6 .
  • Frederick C. Crews: The Sins of the Fathers. Hawthorne's Psychological Themes . Oxford University Press, New York 1966. Reprint: University of California Press, Berkeley / Los Angeles 1989, ISBN 0-520-06817-3 .
  • George Dekker : The American Historical Romance . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1990. (= Cambridge Studies in American Literature and Culture 23) ISBN 0-521-33282-6 .
  • Neal Frank Doubleday: Hawthorne's Early Tales: A Critical Study . Duke University Press, Durham NC 1972.
  • Horst Kruse: Hawthorne and the Matrix of History: The Andros Matter and 'The Gray Champion' . In: Winfried Fluck (Ed.): Forms and Functions of History in American Literature: Essays in Honor of Ursula Brumm . Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1981, ISBN 3-503-01660-0 .
  • John Probasco McWilliams: Hawthorne, Melville and the American Character: A Looking Glass Business . Cambridge University Press, 1984. (= Cambridge Studies in American Literature and Culture 3) ISBN 0-521-25900-2 .
  • Frederick Newberry : 'The Gray Champion': Hawthorne's Ironic Criticism of Puritan Rebellion . In: Studies in Short Fiction 13, 1976. pp. 363-370.
  • Frederick Newberry: Hawthorne's Divided Loyalties: England and America in His Works . Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Rutherford NJ 1987, ISBN 0-8386-3274-2 .
  • Lea Bertani Vozar Newman : A Reader's Guide to the Short Stories of Nathaniel Hawthorne . GK Hall & Co., Boston 1979, ISBN 0-8161-8398-8 .
  • G. Harrison Orians: The Angel of Hadley in Fiction . In: American Literature 4: 3, 1932. pp. 257-269.
  • GR Thompson : The Art of Authorial Presence: Hawthorne's Provincial Tales . Duke University Press, Durham, NC 1993, ISBN 0-8223-1321-9 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ All quotations below based on the translation by Hannelore Neves.
  2. ^ GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , p. 85.
  3. ^ J. Donald Crowley: Edition Notes on Twice-Told Tales (Centenary Edition) , Volume IX, pp. 500–502.
  4. ↑ Elizabeth Lathrop Chandler: A Study of the Sources of the Tales and Romances Written by Nathaniel Hawthorne before 1853 . In: Smith College Studies in Modern Languages 7: 4, 1926; Nelson F. Adkins : The Early Projected Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne . In: Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America 39, 1945. pp. 119-155; Richard P. Adams: Hawthorne's Provincial Tales . In: The New England Quarterly 30: 1, 1957. pp. 39-57; Alfred Weber: The development of the framework narratives Nathaniel Hawthorne: "The Story Teller" and other early works . Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 1973; GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , pp. 23-26.
  5. ^ Nina Baym: The Shape of Hawthorne's Career . Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY 1976. p. 30; J. Donald Crowley: Edition notes on Twice-Told Tales , p. 491 and p. 495.
  6. ^ Alfred Weber: The development of the framework narratives Nathaniel Hawthornes , p. 153.
  7. ^ Alison Easton: The Making of the Hawthorne Subject . University of Missouri Press, Columbia MO 1996. p. 260.
  8. ^ Marion L. Kesselring: Hawthorne's Reading, 1828-1850 . In: Bulletin of the New York Public Library 53, 1949. pp. 55-71, pp. 121-138 and pp. 173-194 (especially p. 121 ff.).
  9. ↑ Alfred Weber: The development of the framework narratives Nathaniel Hawthornes , pp. 81-83.
  10. ^ Alfred Weber: The development of the framework narratives Nathaniel Hawthornes , pp. 100-106.
  11. ↑ On Sir William Phips see in particular Michael J. Colacurcio: The Province of Piety , pp. 12-17.
  12. ^ Alison Easton, The Making of the Hawthorne Subject , pp. 34-37.
  13. ↑ On these and other parallels in other works by Hawthorne see p. Lea Bertani Vozar Newman: A Reader's Guide to the Short Stories of Nathaniel Hawthorne , pp. 141-142.
  14. ↑ George Dekker: The American Historical Romance , p. 134.
  15. ↑ For a comparison of The May-Pole of Merry Mount , The Gray Champion and My Kinsman, Major Molineux see: Peter Shaw: Hawthorne's Ritual Typology of the American Revolution . In: Prospects 3, 1978. pp. 483-498.
  16. ↑ A historical account of the events is offered by David S. Lovejoy: The Glorious Revolution in America . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, Conn. 1987.
  17. ^ Horst Kruse: Hawthorne and the Matrix of History , pp. 105-106.
  18. ^ Horst Kruse: Hawthorne and the Matrix of History , p. 116.
  19. ^ "That he proved a Blasted Wretch, followed with a sensible Curse of GOD wherever he came; Despised, Abhorred, Unprosperous ” . Quoted from: Cotton Mather: Parentator. Memoirs of Remarkables in the Life and the Death of the Ever-Memorable Dr. Increase Mather. Who Expired, Aug 23, 1723. Boston 1724. p. 107.
  20. ↑ Horst Kruse: Hawthorne and the Matrix of History , pp. 111-114.
  21. ↑ On the question of historicity, see Douglas C. Wilson: Web of Secrecy: Goffe, Whalley, and the Legend of Hadley . In: The New England Quarterly 60: 4, 1987. pp. 515-548.
  22. ↑ Ursula Brumm: A "regicide" as a "champion" of American independence , pp. 123–124.
  23. ↑ G. Harrison Orians: The Angel of Hadley in Fiction , passim; Ursula Brumm: A “regicide” as a “champion” of American independence , pp. 124–125.
  24. ↑ "perhaps his voice may be heard in the field once more, England need one of her noblest hearts." German translation based on the edition of Peveril vom Gipfel . Hoffmann'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart 1865 (= all of Walter Scott's works, newly translated, volume 21). P. 190.
  25. ↑ G. Harrison Orians: The Angel of Hadley in Fiction , pp 261-263, and Ursula Brumm: A "regicide" as "champion" of American independence , pp 125-129.
  26. ↑ Randall Stewart: Nathaniel Hawthorne: A Biography . Yale University Press, New Haven CN 1948. p. 41.
  27. ^ Mark L. Sargent: Cry Guilty: The Angel of Hadley, the Witches of Salem, and the Brief Season of an American Myth . Lecture given at Gordon College, February 2000.
  28. ^ Joel Porte: The Romance in America: Studies in Cooper, Poe, Hawthorne, Melville, and James . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown CN 1969. p. 110; Quoted in: Frederick Newberry: 'The Gray Champion' , p. 363.
  29. ↑ For the "Hawthorne Question" see Agnes McNeill Donohue: A Casebook on the Hawthorne Question . Crowell, New York 1963; Michael J. Colacurcio: The Province of Piety , pp. 5-36; GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , pp. 1-22.
  30. ^ GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , p. 85.
  31. ↑ Lea Bertani Vozar Newman: A Reader's Guide to the Short Stories of Nathaniel Hawthorne , pp. 142-143.
  32. ^ Neal Frank Doubleday: Hawthorne's Early Tales , pp. 85-86, p. 92.
  33. ↑ G. Harrison Orians: The Angel of Hadley in Fiction , S. 257th
  34. ↑ Henry James: Hawthorne . Macmillan, London 1879. pp. 65-66.
  35. ↑ Michael Davitt Bell: Hawthorne and the Historical Romance of New England , pp. 49-50; see also John Probasco McWilliams: New England's Crises and Cultural Memory . Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 2009. pp. 135 ff.
  36. ↑ George Dekker: The American Historical Romance , pp. 147 ff.
  37. ^ Neal Frank Doubleday: Hawthorne's Early Tales , p. 90.
  38. ^ Nina Baym: The Shape of Hawthorne's Career , p. 72.
  39. ^ Edward Wagenknecht: Nathaniel Hawthorne: Man and Writer . Oxford University Press, New York 1961. p. 175.
  40. ^ GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , p. 256.
  41. ^ Henry G. Fairbanks: The Lasting Loneliness of Nathaniel Hawthorne: A Study of the Sources of Alienation in Modern Man . Magi Books, Albany NY 1965. pp. 26-27.
  42. ^ Neal Frank Doubleday: Hawthorne's Early Tales , p. 89.
  43. ^ Neal Frank Doubleday: Hawthorne's Early Tales , p. 92.
  44. ^ Peter Shaw: Hawthorne's Ritual Typology of the American Revolution . In: Prospects 3, 1978. pp. 483-498 (esp. Pp. 489 ff.).
  45. ↑ On the importance of typology in American historiography, see Ursula Brumm: The religious typology in American thought: Its meaning for American literary and intellectual history . Leiden, Brill 1963. (= Studies on American Literature and History 2)
  46. ^ Peter Shaw: Hawthorne's Ritual Typology of the American Revolution , pp. 483-484, p. 491.
  47. ↑ See in particular Horst Kruse: Hawthorne and the Matrix of History , pp. 111-114.
  48. ↑ Ursula Brumm: A "regicide" as a "champion" of American independence , pp. 126–127
  49. ↑ Michael J. Colacurcio: The Province of Piety , p. 213; On Irving's handling of his German sources, see Walter A. Reichart: Washington Irving and Germany . University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 1957, p. 23 ff.
  50. ↑ Ursula Brumm: A "regicide" as a "champion" of American independence , pp. 126–127.
  51. ↑ Ursula Brumm: A "regicide" as a "champion" of American independence , pp. 133-134.
  52. ↑ Ursula Brumm: A "regicide" as a "champion" of American independence , p. 129, p. 133-134.
  53. ^ Frederick C. Crews: The Sins of the Fathers . Pp. 39-40
  54. ^ Frederick C. Crews: The Sins of the Fathers . Pp. 39-40. Frederick Newberry , The Gray Champion , pp. 363-364.
  55. ^ Frederick C. Crews: The Sins of the Fathers , p. 40
  56. ^ Frederick Newberry: 'The Gray Champion' , p. 366.
  57. ^ Frederick Newberry: Hawthorne's Divided Loyalties , p. 54.
  58. ^ GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , pp. 93-94.
  59. ↑ GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , pp. 26 ff., Pp. 93-94.
  60. ^ GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , p. 87.
  61. ^ Frederick Newberry: 'The Gray Champion' , p. 366.
  62. ↑ Michael J. Colacurcio: The Province of Piety , p. 218.
  63. ↑ Frederick Newberry , The Gray Champion , pp. 368-369; Frederick Newberry: Hawthorne's Divided Loyalties , pp. 54-56.
  64. ^ George Dekker: The American Historical Romance , p. 139.
  65. ↑ Michael J. Colacurcio: The Province of Piety , pp. 210-211, pp. 217-218 and p. 589 (footnote 13); on the “Jeremiads” of the 17th century see: Perry Miller: The New England Mind: From Colony to Province . Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1953. Bes. Pp. 149-172.
  66. ↑ Michael J. Colacurcio: The Province of Piety , pp. 213, 217; Frederick Newberry: Hawthorne's Divided Loyalties , pp. 52-54.
  67. ^ GR Thompson: The Art of Authorial Presence , p. 86.
  68. ↑ George Dekker: The American Historical Romance , pp. 137-149.
  69. ^ Alison Easton: The Making of the Hawthorne Subject , p. 37.
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