Battle of Khafji and Carbon filtering: Difference between pages

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[[Image:Activated Carbon.jpg|thumb|210px|right|Activated carbon from a [[water filter]] used for Carbon filtering in powder and block form]]
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{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Khafji
|partof=the [[Gulf War]]
|image=[[Image:Khafji-31-jan.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Military operations during liberation of Khafji.
|date=January 29 - February 1, 1991
|place=[[Khafji]], [[Saudi Arabia]]
|casus=
|territory=
|result=Decisive Coalition victory
|combatant1={{flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} [[Saudi Arabia]],<br>{{flagicon|USA}} [[United States]],<br>{{flagicon|Qatar}} [[Qatar]]
|combatant2= {{flagicon|Iraq|1991}} [[Iraq]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} Sultan Al-Mutairi
|commander2={{flagicon|Iraq|1991}} Salah Abud Mahmud
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=36 dead,</br>32 wounded,</br>2 POW
|casualties2=2000+ dead,</br>400 POW
|casualties3=
|notes=
}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Gulf War}}
{{FixBunching|end}}


'''Carbon filtering''' is a method of filtering that uses a piece of [[activated carbon]] to remove contaminants and impurities, utilizing chemical [[adsorption]]. Each piece of carbon is designed to provide a large section of surface area, in order to allow contaminants the most possible exposure to the filter media. One pound (454g) of activated carbon contains a surface area of approximately 100 [[acres]] <!-- needs metric conversion -->.<ref>{{cite book
The '''Battle of Khafji''' was the first major ground engagement of the [[Gulf War]]. It took place in the [[Saudi Arabia]]n city of [[Khafji]], from January 29 to February 1, 1991.
|url=http://www.amazon.com/Design-Remediation-Systems-Jimmy-Hock/dp/1566702178
|title=Design of Remediation Systems
|author=Jimmy Wong, Chin Hong Lim, Greg L. Nolen
|publisher=CRC Press
|isbn=978-1566702171
|date=1997-03-28
|pages=p. 226
|language=English
|accessdate=2008-09-05
}}</ref> This carbon is generally activated with a positive charge and is designed to attract negatively charged water contaminants. Carbon filtering is commonly used for [[water purification]], but is also used in [[air purifier]]s.


Carbon filters are most effective at removing [[chlorine]], [[sediment]], and [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOCs) from water. They are not effective at removing [[minerals]], [[salts]], and dissolved inorganic compounds.
The battle began when [[Iraq]]i troops unexpectedly invaded Khafji. Forces from [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Qatar]], backed by [[United States|American]] artillery and air strikes, evicted Iraqi troops and tanks, and freed two trapped [[U.S. Marine]] [[reconnaissance]] teams.


Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon filters range from 0.5 to 50 [[micrometre]]s. The particle size will be used as part of the filter description. The efficacy of a carbon filter is also based upon the flow rate regulation. As water is allowed to flow through the filter more slowly, the longer contaminants are exposed to the filter media.
==Background==
On August 2 1990, the [[Iraqi Army]] invaded and occupied the neighboring state of [[Kuwait]].<ref name=Lewis481>Lewis, p. 481</ref> The invasion had come from a long set of events, including the inconclusive results of the [[Iran–Iraq War]] and the political conflicts between Iraq and Kuwait since the 1960s. Furthermore, with political dissent at home and falling petroleum prices, Kuwait offered a lucrative addition to Iraq's oil resources—which were second only to Saudi Arabia.<ref>Halliday, p. 226</ref> The Iraqi invasion led to a build-up of forces from a variety of different nations, led by the [[United States]], and styled the [[Coalition of the Gulf War|Coalition]]—by January 1991, there were around half a million personnel built up on the [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabian]] border.<ref>Halliday, p. 223</ref> On January 17 1991, the Coalition launched a 38-day aerial campaign over the Iraqi Army.<ref name=Lewis481 /> The air campaign achieved an average daily sortie rate of an estimated 2,000,<ref>Freedman & Karsh, pp. 24–25</ref> as the Iraqi air defense system proved ineffective and was rapidly crippled.<ref>Biddle, pp. 144–145</ref> Prior to the beginning of Coalition operations over Iraq, the [[Iraqi Air Force]] was flying an estimated 200 sorties per day, while by 17 January it was flying almost none.<ref>Freedman & Karsh, p. 27</ref> The Coalition systematically destroyed the Iraqi Air Force and on the third day of the air campaign large portions had began to flee across the [[Iran|Iranian]] border.<ref>Freedman & Karsh, pp. 27–28</ref> The air campaign also targeted command and control sites, bridges and railroads, as well as areas containing large stocks of petroleum.<ref>Lewis, pp. 493–495</ref>


==Types of carbon filters==
Assured that the war would be decided on the ground, Saddam Hussein is believed to have said, "The air force has never decided a war." Confident that the United States was not willing to lose a large quantity of soldiers, the Iraqi leader believed that the war would be decided on the ground.<ref>Titus, p. 3</ref> Afraid that the air campaign would erode at Iraq's national morale, Saddam planned to draw Coalition ground troops into a decisive battle.<ref>Freedman & Karsh, p. 28</ref> To do this, Iraq began a [[Scud]] launching campaign against [[Israel]] and also threatened the Coalition with the destruction of Kuwait's and other oil fields. To this effect, on 16 January Iraqi artillery destroyed an oil storage tank in Al-Khafji, in Saudi Arabia.<ref>Freedman & Karsh, p. 29</ref> Frustrated by the lack of results,<ref>Freedman & Karsh, p. 30</ref> Saddam Hussein decided to launch a limited scale offensive into Saudi Arabia, in an effort to inflict heavy losses on the Coalition's armies.<ref>Titus, p. 4</ref>
There are two predominant types of carbon filters used in the filtration industry: powdered block filters and granular activated filters. In general, carbon block filters are more effective at removing a larger number of contaminants, based upon the increased surface area of carbon. Many carbon filters also use secondary media, such as [[silver]] or [[KDF-55]], to prevent [[bacteria]] growth within the filter.


==History of carbon filters==
As the air campaign continued, the Coalition's expectations of an Iraqi offensive grew dimmer. To this respect, the United States redeployed the [[XVIII Airborne Corps (United States)|XVIII Airborne Corps]] and the [[VII Corps (United States)|VII Corps]] 480&nbsp;kilometers (300&nbsp;mi) to the West. The Coalition's leadership believed that should an Iraqi attack be produced, it would begin from the al-Wafra oil fields, in Southern Kuwait.<ref>Titus, p. 5</ref>
Carbon filters have been used for several hundred years and are considered one of the oldest means of water purification. Historians have shown evidence that carbon filtration may have been used in ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] cultures for both air and water sanitization.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} 2000 B.C. Sanskrit text refers to filtering water through charcoal (1905 translation of "Sushruta Samhita" by Francis Evelyn Place).{{Fact|date=September 2008}} The first modern use of a carbon filter to purify [[potable]] water occurred in 1862.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} Carbon filtration was further advanced in the mid 1970's when carbon powder was first manufactured into a porous block form for drinking water use.{{Fact|date=September 2008}}


Currently, carbon filters are used in individual homes as point-of-use [[water filters]] and, occasionally, in municipal water treatment facilities. They are also used as pre-treatment devices for [[reverse osmosis]] systems and as specialized filters designed to remove chlorine-resistant cysts, such as [[giardia]] and [[cryptosporidium]].
==Order of Battle==
[[Image:DesertStormMap v2.svg|right|thumb|Coalition and Iraqi units deployed in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations]]
On a theater wide level, the Iraqi Army had between 350,000–500,000 effectives.<ref>Freedman & Karsh, p. 13; post-war estimates put Iraqi personnel at around 350,000, while prior to the war the Coalition estimated a strength of around 540,000 soldiers.</ref> This force was organized into 51 divisions, including 8 [[Iraqi Republican Guard|Republican Guard]] divisions.<ref name=Press13>Press, p. 13</ref> These units normally received the newest equipment;<ref name=Press13 /> for example, of the estimated 1,000 [[T-72]]s in the Iraqi Army on the eve of the war, the majority of these were concentrated in the Republican Guard divisions.<ref name=Zaloga38>Zaloga (1993), p. 38</ref> The Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations (KTO) also included nine heavy divisions, composed of mostly professional soldiers, but with weapons of a generally lesser grade than those issued to the Republican Guard.<ref>Press, pp. 13–14</ref> For example, the majority of non-Republican Guard units received the [[T-54/55|T-55]] or its [[China|Chinese]] equivalents, the [[Type 59]] and [[Type 69]].<ref>Zaloga (2004), p. 42</ref> The remaining thirty-four divisions were composed of poorly trained conscripts. These were organized in such a way in which it was expected that they would channel the Coalition's forces through a number of breakthroughs along the front, allowing the Iraqi Army's heavy divisions and the Republican Guard units to isolate them and counterattack.<ref>Press, p. 14</ref> However, not expecting the efficiency of new technologies, such as the [[global positioning system]], the Iraqis left their Western flank open.<ref>Press, pp. 14–15</ref>


==Hydrogen production==
In Saudi Arabia, the Coalition originally deployed over 200,000 soldiers, 750 aircraft and 1,200 tanks.<ref>Williams, pp. 5–6</ref> This quickly grew to over 600,000 personnel, of which over 500,000 were provided by the United States.<ref>CNN, ''Gulf War Facts''</ref>
For small scale [[Hydrogen production|production of hydrogen]] water purifiers are installed to prevent formation of minerals on the surface of the electrodes and to remove organics and chlorine from utility water. First the water passes through a 20 micrometer interference ([[mesh]] or [[screen filter]]) filter to remove sand and dust particles, second, a charcoal filter ([[activated carbon]]) to remove organics and [[chlorine]], third stage, a [[Deionized water|de-ionizing filter]] to remove metallic ions.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} A test can be done before and after the filter for proper functioning on [[barium]], [[calcium]], [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], [[sodium]] and [[silicon]].


== Nuclear / Nuclear Medicine ==
===Iraqi Forces===
Carbon filters are widely used on [[hot cells]] in conjunction with HEPA filters.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} This allows expulsion of the extracted air into the atmosphere as all particles (or at least 99.99999%) along with any radioactivity, have been removed.
Slated for the offensive into Saudi Arabia was the Iraqi Third Corps.<ref>Williams, p. 3</ref> The Third Corps was composed of the 3rd Armored Division and 5th Mechanized Division. Also prepared for the attack was the 1st Mechanized Division from Fourth Corps and a number of commando units.<ref>Mahnken & Watts, p. 155</ref> Third Corps was under the command of Major General Salah Aboud Mahmoud, who also had command of the opeartion, while Fourth Corps commander was Major General Yaiyd Khalel Zaki. Also deployed along this portion of the front, although not taking part of the offensive, were five separate infantry divisions which were ordered to continue defending the border.<ref name=Westermeyer5>Westermeyer, p. 5</ref> The 3rd Armored Division was the only non-Republican Guard force to have a number of T-72 tanks,<ref name=Zaloga38 /> while the rest of the participating armored battalions were composed of T-55s and [[T-62]]s.<ref name=Westermeyer5 /> A small number of these T-55s were upgraded with an Iraqi appliqué armor similar to Soviet [[Reactive armour#Non-explosive and non-energetic reactive armour|bulging armor]], also known as "brow" laminate armor or BDD. During the battle of Khafji, these upgraded T-55s survived impacts from [[MILAN|Milan anti-tank missiles]].<ref>Zaloga (2004), p. 36</ref> These divisions were also issued armored personnel vehicle such as the [[BMP-1]] and scout vehicles such as the [[BRDM-2]]. They were also equipped with several different types of artillery pieces.<ref name=Westermeyer5 />


==See also==
{| class="wikitable" border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3 style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:left;" summary="Characteristics of Iraqi armored fighting vehicles at Khafji"
* [[Water filter]]
|- style="vertical-align:bottom; border-bottom:1px solid #999;"
* [[Activated Carbon]]
!
* [[Zeocarbon]]
! style="text-align:left;" | T-72<ref>Zaloga (1993), p. 28</ref>
* [[Hydrogen production]]
! style="text-align:left;" | T-55<ref>Zaloga (2004), p. 29</ref>
! style="text-align:left;" | T-62<ref>Zaloga (1979), p. 20</ref>
! style="text-align:left;" | BMP-1<ref>Zaloga (1995), p. 28</ref>
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Weight
| 37.6 [[Tonne|t]] (41.5&nbsp;[[short ton]]s)
| 36&nbsp;t (39.7&nbsp;tons)
| 40&nbsp;t (44&nbsp;tons)
| 13.9&nbsp;t (15.3&nbsp;tons)
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Gun
| 125&nbsp;mm 2A46D smoothbore (4.92&nbsp;[[inch]]es)
| 100&nbsp;mm D-10T2S rifled (3.94&nbsp;in)
| 115&nbsp;mm U-5T smoothbore (4.53&nbsp;in)
| 73&nbsp;mm 2A2B Grom Low-pressure gun (2.9&nbsp;in)
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Ammunition
| 44 rounds
| 43 rounds
| 40 rounds
| 40 rounds
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Road&nbsp;range
| 342.8&nbsp;km (300&nbsp;miles)
| 500&nbsp;km (310.7&nbsp;mi)
| 300–450&nbsp;km (186–279&nbsp;mi)
| 500&nbsp;km (310.7&nbsp;mi)
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Engine output
| 780&nbsp;[[Horsepower|PS]] (769.3&nbsp;[[Watt|kW]])
| 580&nbsp;PS (572&nbsp;kW)
| 580&nbsp;PS (572&nbsp;kW)
| 300&nbsp;PS (295.9&nbsp;kW)
|-
! style="text-align:right;" | Maximum speed
| 60&nbsp;km/h (37.3&nbsp;mph)
| 50&nbsp;km/h (30&nbsp;mph)
| 50&nbsp;km/h (30&nbsp;mph)
| 40&nbsp;km/h (24.9&nbsp;mph)
|}

[[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] reconnaissance estimated that the Iraqi Army had amassed around 60,000 troops across the border, near the Kuwaiti town of Wafra, in as much as 5 or 6 divisions.<ref name=Williams13>Williams, p. 13</ref> Infantry divisions normally consisted up three brigades, which an attached commando unit, although some infantry divisions could have up to eight brigades—however, most infantry divisions along the border were understrength, especially due to desertion.<ref>Rottman, p. 51</ref> Armored and mechanized divisions normally made use of three brigades, with each brigade having up to four combat battalions; depending on the division type, these were generally a three to one mix, with either three mechanized battalions and one armored battalion, or vice versa.<ref>Rottman, pp. 51–52</ref> Given the size of the forces deployed across the border, it's thought that the Iraqi Army planned to continue the offensive, after the successful capture of Al-Khafji, in order to seize the valuable oil fields at Damman.<ref name=Williams13 />

The attack would consist of a four prong offensive. The 1st Mechanized Division would pass through the 7th and 14th Infantry Divisions, intending to protect the 3rd Armored Division's flank. The 3rd Armored Division was to provide a blocking force, West of Al-Khafji, while the 5th Mechanized Division took the town. The 1st Mechanized and 3rd Armored Divisions would then retire back to Kuwait, while the 5th Mechanized Division would wait until the Coalition launched a counteroffensive. The principle objectives were to inflict heavy casualties on the attacking Coalition soldiers and taken prisoners of war.<ref>Westermeyer, pp. 5–6</ref> Saddam theorized that the capture of prisoners of war would bring him an excellent bargaining chip in the war.<ref>Westermeyer, p. 6</ref>

As the units deployed to the Saudi border they became the victims of a number of air raids by Coalition aircraft. For example, around the Al-Walfrah forest, around 1,000 Iraqi armored fighting vehicles were moving to the Saudi border. These were attacked by [[Harrier Jump Jet|Harrier]] aircraft, dropping [[CBU-100 Cluster Bomb|Rockeye cluster bombs]].<ref>Williams, pp. 14–15</ref> In another instance, [[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]] aircraft attacked an Iraqi convoy of armored vehicles, destroying the first and last vehicles first and then systemically engaging the remainder.<ref>Williams, p. 15</ref> The majority of Iraqi troops slated for the offensive were not able to take part because they had been destroyed by Coalition air power in the preceding days.<ref>Williams, p. 16</ref>

===Coalition Forces===
[[Image:Kuwaitheel.jpg|left|thumb|The "heel" of Kuwait]]
During the build-up of forces, the United States had built and manned a number of [[observation post]]s along the Kuwaiti and Iraqi border, aimed towards the gathering of intelligence on Iraqi forces. These were manned by [[United States Navy SEALs|Navy SEAL]]s, [[United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance|Marine Reconnaissance]] and [[Special Forces (United States Army)|U.S. Army Special Forces]] personnel. Observation post 8 was positioned farthest to the East, on the coast, and another 7 observation posts were positioned at 20&nbsp;kilometer (12.43&nbsp;mi) until reaching the end of what was termed the "heel", or the geographic panhandle that made up southernmost Kuwait. Observation posts 8 and 7 had direct oversight over the coastal highway, which ran to Al-Khafji, and was considered the most likely invasion route of the city.<ref>Westermeyer, p. 9</ref> [[1st Marine Division (United States)|1st Marine Division]] had three companies positioned at observation posts 4–6 (Task Force Shepard), while the [[2nd Marine Division (United States)|2nd Marine Division]]'s 2nd Light Armored Infantry Battalion set up a screen between observation post 1 and the Al-Wafrah oil fields.<ref name=Westermeyer10>Westermeyer, p. 10</ref>

The Saudis gave responsibility for the defense of Al-Khafji to the 2nd Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade and a Qatari armored battalion, attached under Task Force Abu Bakr. The 5th Battalion, belonging to the 2nd Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade set up a screen north and west of Al-Khafji, under observation post 7.<ref name=Westermeyer10 /> At the time, a Saudi Arabian National Guard Brigade could have up to four motorized battalions, each with three line companies. The brigade had a nominal strength of an estimated 5,000 soldiers.<ref>Stanton, pp. 6–7</ref> The Saudis also deployed the Tariq Task Force, composed of Saudi Arabian Marines and a battalion of [[Morocco|Moroccan]] infantry. Two further task forces, Othman and Omar Task Forces, were comprised of two Mechanized Ministry of Defense and Aviation Brigades, providing screens about three&nbsp;kilometers (1.9&nbsp;mi) south of the border. The country's main defenses were placed twenty&nbsp;kilometers (12.4&nbsp;mi) south of the screen.<ref name=Westermeyer10 />

The majority of the Arab contingent was led by General Khaled bin Sultan. The forces around Al-Khafji were organized into the Joint Forces Command-East, while Joint Forces Command-North defended the border between observation post 1 and the Kuwaiti-Iraqi border.<ref>Westermeyer, p. 7</ref>

==Battle==
On 27 January 1991, Saddam Hussein visited [[Basra]], meeting with the two corps commanders leading the operation. In the meeting, the Iraqi leader discussed the planned operation, while Major General Salah Mahmoud told Saddam that Khafji would be his by 30 January. While Saddam was making his return trip to [[Baghdad]], his convoy was attacked by Coalition aircraft, although he escaped unscathed.<ref>Westermeyer, p. 11</ref><ref name=Williams13 /> Throughout 28 January, the Coalition received a number of warnings suggesting an impending Iraqi offensive. The Coalition was flying two brand-new [[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8A]] Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS) aircraft, which picked up the deployment and movement of Iraqi forces to the area opposite of Al-Khafji.<ref>Titus, p. 6</ref> Observation posts 2, 7 and 8, having small teams of air-naval gunfire liaison Marines, also detected heavy Iraqi reconnoitering along the border, calling in air strikes and artillery strikes throughout the day. Despite warnings of an impending attack expressed by Lieutenant Colonel Richard Barry, commander of the forward headquarters of the 1st Surveillance, Reconnaissance and Intelligence Group, [[United States Central Command|Central Command]] was to preoccupied with the air campaign to heed them.<ref>Westermeyer, pp. 12–13</ref> As a result, the Iraqi operation came as a surprise.<ref>Titus, pp. 6–7</ref><ref>Williams, p. 21</ref>

===29 January===
The Iraqi offensive began on the night of 29 January, with around two thousand soldiers in several hundred armored fighting vehicles moving southwards.<ref>Williams, p. 23</ref> The first engagement of the ground war was near observation post 4, built on the Al-Zabr police building.<ref>Titus, p. 9</ref><ref>Williams, p. 24</ref> Coalition units at Al-Zabr were engaged by elements of the Iraqi 6th Armored Brigade, which was ordered to take the heights above Al-Zabr.<ref>Westermeyer, p. 15</ref> At 2000 hours, Marines at the observation post, who had noticed large groups of armored vehicles through their night vision devices, attempted to make contact with battalion headquarters but received no response. Contact was not established until 2030 hours, which prompted Task Force Shepard to respond to the threat. Although Coalition soldiers at observation post 4 opened fire on the Iraqi column, it was largely ineffective and catalyzed an Iraqi response—the company was soon ordered to retire south, by its commanding officer.<ref>Westermeyer, p. 16</ref> To cover the withdrawal, the company's platoon of [[LAV-25]]s and LAV-ATs (anti-tank variants) moved to engage the Iraqi force. One of the anti-tank vehicles soon opened fire, after receiving permission, believing to have engaged an Iraqi tank—instead, the missile engaged a friendly LAV-AT a few hundred meters in front of it. The struck vehicle was completely destroyed, but the platoon continued forward and soon opened fire on the Iraqi tanks with the LAV-25's autocannons. Although incapable of penetrating the tank's armor, the fire served to disorient their tank commanders.<ref>Westermeyer, pp. 16–18</ref> Soon thereafter, a number of A-10 ground attack aircraft arrived in the area, but found it difficult to pinpoint enemy targets, and therefore began to drop flares to illuminate the zone. One of these flares landed on a friendly vehicle, and although the vehicle radioed in their position, it was engaged by an [[AGM-65 Maverick]] air-to-ground missile, killing the entire crew except for the driver. Following the incident, the company was withdrawn and the remaining vehicles reorganized into another nearby company.<ref>Westermeyer, pp. 18–19</ref> With observation post 4 cleared, the Iraqi 6th Armored Brigade withdrew back over the border to Al-Wafrah under heavy fire from Coalition aircraft. Coalition forces had lost eleven troops to friendly fire, but none to enemy fire.<ref>Westermeyer, pp. 19–20</ref><ref>Titus, pp. 9–11</ref>

While the events at observation post 4 were unfolding, the Iraqi 5th Mechanized Division crossed the Saudi border near observation post 1. A Company, of the 2nd Light Infantry Armored Battalion, which was screening the Iraqi unit, reported a column of 60–100 BMPs. The column was engaged by Coalition A-10s and Harrier jump jets. This was then followed by another column with an estimated 29 tanks. One of the column's T-62 tanks was engaged by an anti-tank missile and destroyed.<ref>Westermeyer, p. 20</ref> Coalition air support, provided by A-10s and [[F-16]]s, engaged the Iraqi drive through observation post 1 and ultimately repulsed the attack back over the Iraqi border. Aircraft continued to engage the columns throughout the night, until the next morning.<ref>Williams, p. 38</ref> Another column of Iraqi tanks, approaching observation post 2, were engaged by aircraft and also repulsed that night.<ref>Titus, p. 11</ref>

===30 January===

===31 January – 1 February===

==Aftermath==


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|3}}
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Biddle
| first = Stephen
| title = Victory Misunderstood: What the Gulf War Tells us About the Future of Conflict
| journal = International Security
| volume = 21
| issue = 2
| pages = 139–179
| publisher = The MIT Press
| date = Autumn 1996
| accessdate = 2008-10-12 }}
*{{cite journal
| last = Freedman
| first = Lawrence
| coauthors = Efraim Karsh
| title = How Kuwait Was Won: Strategy in the Gulf War
| journal = International Security
| volume = 16
| issue = 2
| pages = 5–41
| publisher = The MIT Press
| date = Autumn 1991
| accessdate = 2008-10-10}}
*{{cite web
| title = Gulf War Facts
| work = CNN
| publisher = CNN.com
| url = http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/gulf.war/facts/gulfwar/
| accessdate = 2008-10-12}}
*{{cite journal
| last = Halliday
| first = Fred
| title = The Gulf War and its Aftermath: First Reflections
| journal = International Affairs
| volume = 67
| issue = 2
| pages = 223–234
| publisher = Blackwell Publishing
| date = April 1991
| accessdate = 2008-10-12 }}
*{{cite journal
| last = Lewis
| first = Michael W.
| title = The Law of Aerial Bombardment in the 1991 Gulf War
| journal = The American Journal of International Law
| volume = 97
| issue = 3
| pages = 481–509
| publisher = American Society of International Law
| date = July 2003
| accessdate = 2008-10-12 }}
*{{cite journal
| last = Mahnken
| first = Thomas G.
| coauthors = Barry D. Watts
| title = What the Gulf War Can (and Cannot) Tell Us about the Future of Warfare
| journal = International Security
| volume = 22
| issue = 2
| pages = 151–162
| publisher = The MIT Press
| date = Autumn 1997
| accessdate = 2008-10-10 }}
*{{cite journal
| last = Press
| first = Daryl G.
| title = The Myth of Air Power in the Persian Gulf War and the Future of Warfare
| journal = International Security
| volume = 26
| issue = 2
| pages = 4–44
| publisher = The MIT Press
| date = Autumn 2001
| accessdate = 2008-10-10}}
*{{cite book
| last = Rottman
| first = Gordon
| title = Armies of the Gulf War
| publisher = Osprey
| date = 1993
| location = Oxford, United Kingdom
| pages = 64
| isbn = 1-85532-277-3 }}
*{{cite paper
| first = James
| last = Titus
| title = The Battle of Khafji: An Overview and Preliminary Analysis
| publisher = College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education Air University
| date = September 1996
| accessdate = 2008-10-10 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Westermeyer
| first = Paul W.
| title = U.S. Marines in Battle: Al-Khafji, 28 January – 1 February 1991
| publisher = History Division, U.S. Marine Corps
| location = Washington D.C., United States of America}}
*{{cite paper
| first = Scott
| last = Williams
| title = The Battle of Al-Khafji
| publisher = Naval Postgraduate School
| date = June 2002
| accessdate = 2008-10-10}}
*{{cite book
| last = Zaloga
| first = Steven J.
| title = BMP Infantry Fighting Vehicle 1967-94
| publisher = Osprey
| date = 1995
| location = Oxford, United Kingdom
| pages = 48
| isbn = 1-85532-433-4 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Zaloga
| first = Steven J.
| title = Modern Soviet Armor: Combat Vehicles of the USSR and Warsaw Pact Today
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| date = 1979
| location = Edinburg, United Kingdom
| pages = 88
| isbn = 0-13597-856-4 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Zaloga
| first = Steven J.
| title = T-54 and T-55 Main Battle Tanks 1944-2004
| publisher = Osprey
| date = 2004
| location = Oxford, United Kingdom
| pages = 48
| isbn = 1 84176 792 1}}
*{{cite book
| last = Zaloga
| first = Steven J.
| title = T-72 Main Battle Tank 1974-93
| publisher = Osprey
| date = 1993
| location = Oxford, United Kingdom
| pages = 48
| isbn = 1 85532 338 9}}
{{refend}}


==External links==
[[Category:1991 in Saudi Arabia]]
* [http://www.historyofwaterfilters.com/ Water filtration history] A guide to the history of water filters and current water treatment issues.
[[Category:Battles of the Gulf War|Khafji]]
* [http://www.allaboutwater.org/ Water facts and information] Discusses water treatment alternatives and bottled water quality.
[[Category:Battles involving the United States|Khafji]]
* [http://www.waterfilters.net/water-university/choose-water-filter.htm Common Carbon Water Filters] Describes various carbon filters and which contaminants they remove.
[[Category:Battles involving Saudi Arabia|Khafji]]
* [http://www.activecarbonfilters.com/Activecarbon/index.htm Active Carbon Filters Ltd.] Activated Carbon filter manufacturer.


[[Category:Water technology]]
[[ar:معركة الخفجي]]
[[Category:Filters]]
[[it:Battaglia di Khafji]]
[[no:Slaget ved Khafji]]
[[de:Schlacht von Khafji]]

Revision as of 16:11, 13 October 2008

Activated carbon from a water filter used for Carbon filtering in powder and block form

Carbon filtering is a method of filtering that uses a piece of activated carbon to remove contaminants and impurities, utilizing chemical adsorption. Each piece of carbon is designed to provide a large section of surface area, in order to allow contaminants the most possible exposure to the filter media. One pound (454g) of activated carbon contains a surface area of approximately 100 acres .[1] This carbon is generally activated with a positive charge and is designed to attract negatively charged water contaminants. Carbon filtering is commonly used for water purification, but is also used in air purifiers.

Carbon filters are most effective at removing chlorine, sediment, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from water. They are not effective at removing minerals, salts, and dissolved inorganic compounds.

Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon filters range from 0.5 to 50 micrometres. The particle size will be used as part of the filter description. The efficacy of a carbon filter is also based upon the flow rate regulation. As water is allowed to flow through the filter more slowly, the longer contaminants are exposed to the filter media.

Types of carbon filters

There are two predominant types of carbon filters used in the filtration industry: powdered block filters and granular activated filters. In general, carbon block filters are more effective at removing a larger number of contaminants, based upon the increased surface area of carbon. Many carbon filters also use secondary media, such as silver or KDF-55, to prevent bacteria growth within the filter.

History of carbon filters

Carbon filters have been used for several hundred years and are considered one of the oldest means of water purification. Historians have shown evidence that carbon filtration may have been used in ancient Egyptian cultures for both air and water sanitization.[citation needed] 2000 B.C. Sanskrit text refers to filtering water through charcoal (1905 translation of "Sushruta Samhita" by Francis Evelyn Place).[citation needed] The first modern use of a carbon filter to purify potable water occurred in 1862.[citation needed] Carbon filtration was further advanced in the mid 1970's when carbon powder was first manufactured into a porous block form for drinking water use.[citation needed]

Currently, carbon filters are used in individual homes as point-of-use water filters and, occasionally, in municipal water treatment facilities. They are also used as pre-treatment devices for reverse osmosis systems and as specialized filters designed to remove chlorine-resistant cysts, such as giardia and cryptosporidium.

Hydrogen production

For small scale production of hydrogen water purifiers are installed to prevent formation of minerals on the surface of the electrodes and to remove organics and chlorine from utility water. First the water passes through a 20 micrometer interference (mesh or screen filter) filter to remove sand and dust particles, second, a charcoal filter (activated carbon) to remove organics and chlorine, third stage, a de-ionizing filter to remove metallic ions.[citation needed] A test can be done before and after the filter for proper functioning on barium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium and silicon.

Nuclear / Nuclear Medicine

Carbon filters are widely used on hot cells in conjunction with HEPA filters.[citation needed] This allows expulsion of the extracted air into the atmosphere as all particles (or at least 99.99999%) along with any radioactivity, have been removed.

See also

References

  1. ^ Jimmy Wong, Chin Hong Lim, Greg L. Nolen (1997-03-28). Design of Remediation Systems. CRC Press. pp. p. 226. ISBN 978-1566702171. Retrieved 2008-09-05. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

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