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{{short description|Container made of rawhide}} |
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A parfleche is an [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous]], decorated [[Rawhide (material)|rawhide]] container originating from the [[Great Plains]] region in the seventeenth century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indians of the Plains|last=Lowie|first=Robert H.|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=1954|isbn=|location=New York|pages=5}}</ref> While buffalo-rawhide crafts (such as painted robes) were at their zenith during the time of [[History of the Americas#European colonization|European contact]], scholars pair the development of the parfleche with the introduction of the horse to North America, by the Spanish.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=Indian rawhide: An American folk art|last=Morrow|first=Mable|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1975|isbn=|location=Norman|pages=7}}</ref>{{Rp|88.}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lycett|first=Stephen K.|date=2017|title=Cultural Patterns within and outside of the post-contact Great Plains as revealed by Parfleche characteristics: Implications for areal arrangements in artifactual data|url=|journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|volume=48|pages=87-101|via=}}</ref> The increased mobility and [[Plains Indians|nomadic lifestyle]] allowed by the horse, required essential goods such as preserved foods (including [[pemmican]]), clothing, and even [[Native American religion|ceremonial]] items to be transported efficiently in lightweight and weatherproof packaging.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=The American Indian Parfleche|last=Torrence|first=Gaylord|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1994|isbn=|location=Seattle|pages=29}}</ref>{{Rp|29.}} While the most common form of the parfleche was the folded envelope, they were also constructed as laced flat cases, cylinders, and trunks.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|59.}} |
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[[File:Lakota Parflech Displayed at the National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, D.C..jpg|400px|thumb|A '''parfleche''' is a type of wallet or bag made from rawhide. Historically made by Plateau, Great Basin, and [[Plains Indians|Plains women]], they are usually decorated with brightly colored geometrical designs.<ref name=Medicine/>]] |
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A '''parfleche''' is a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[rawhide (textile)|rawhide]] container that is embellished by painting, incising, or both. |
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Envelope-shaped parfleches have historically been used to contain items such as household tools or foods, such as dried meat or [[pemmican]]. They were commonly made in pairs and hung from saddles. Their designs may have once served as maps.<ref name=GoesInCenter>Goes In Center, Jhon (Oglala Lakota), "[http://www.conservationgis.org/native/native1.html Native American and First Nations' GIS]" for ''Native Geography 2000''</ref> In contemporary usage, they may carry social, spiritual, and symbolic meaning, or be part of dance or parade regalia. |
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| ⚫ | The |
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The bags are usually decorated with a distinctive style of graphic artwork, often symbolizing landscape features such as rivers and mountains.<ref name=GoesInCenter/> Historically women were the main creators of parfleches,<ref name=Medicine/> first painting stretched-out raw hides, then shaping them into their final form. In the 21st century, both women and men make them. |
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== Manufacture == |
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==Overview== |
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=== Social Influences === |
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The increased mobility among the [[European Colonization of the Americas#Post contact|post-contact]] [[Plains Indians]] [[horse culture]] required that essential goods such as preserved foods (including [[pemmican]]), clothing, medicines, and ceremonial items be transported efficiently in lightweight and weatherproof packaging.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=The American Indian Parfleche|last=Torrence|first=Gaylord|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1994|location=Seattle|pages=29}}</ref>{{Rp|29.}} While the most common form of the parfleche was the folded envelope or flat wallet, they were also constructed as laced flat cases, cylinders, and trunks.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|59.}} |
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As parfleche production was largely undertaken by Indigenous craftswomen, this role effected their identities and positions in their communities.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|101.}} For instance, a female artist who was exceptionally skilled in construction and painting could enjoy a prestigious and respected position in her society.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|716.}} Moreover, there is evidence that Indigenous craftswomen were often organized into local [[Guild|guilds]] and had elected senior leaders who would pass on skills, knowledge and spiritual guidance to their [[Mentorship|proteges]].<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|54.}} Guilds can also be credited with the consistency in parfleche design among many nations, as they enforced rules for the creation and design of the crafts.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|105.}} |
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The production of parfleche bags declined drastically when mercenaries hired by the US federal government slaughtered the [[American bison|buffalo herds]] to the brink of extinction. The federal government forced Indigenous peoples to relocate onto government-partitioned [[Indian reservation|reservations]].<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|38.}} While less visible to the colonists who were collecting them for museums, some tribes, particularly the [[Nez Perce]] were able to continue hunting and making parfleches throughout the 20th century. The [[Blackfoot Confederacy|Niisitapi]] and [[Lakota people]] continue to produce parfleches today.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|39.}} |
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Modern historians note the unfortunate truth, that while parfleche are collected and admired as art pieces today, their female creators (who would have been renowned in their own communities) remain largely unknown to us.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|25.}} |
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==Etymology== |
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== Distinctive Designs == |
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| ⚫ | The name "parfleche" was initially used by French [[North American fur trade|fur traders]] in the region, and derives from the [[French language]] ''parer'' meaning "to parry" or "to defend", and ''flèche'' meaning "arrow".<ref name=Lycett>{{Cite journal|last=Lycett|first=Stephen J.|date=2015|title=Differing Patterns of Material Culture Intergroup Variation on the High Plains: Quantitative Analyses of Parfleche Characteristics vs. Moccasin decoration|journal=American Antiquity|volume=80|pages=714–731}}</ref>{{Rp|717.}} "Parfleche" was also used to describe tough rawhide shields, but later used primarily for these decorated rawhide containers.<ref name=Lycett/>{{Rp|717.}} Different Indigenous peoples have their own names for these versatile packages, including ''ho'sēō'o'' ([[Cheyenne]]),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cdkc.edu/cheyennedictionary/index-english/index.htm|title=English - Cheyenne|website=cdkc.edu|access-date=2019-05-31}}</ref> ''bishkisché'' ([[Crow Nation|Apsáalooke]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.crowlanguage.org/|title=Crow Dictionary|website=dictionary.crowlanguage.org|access-date=2019-05-31}}</ref> and ''ho'úwoonó3'' ([[Arapaho|Hinono'eino]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://verbs.colorado.edu/arapaho/public/view_search|title=Arapaho Lexical Dictionary|website=verbs.colorado.edu|access-date=2019-05-31}}</ref><ref name=Morrow>{{Cite book|title=Indian rawhide: An American folk art|last=Morrow|first=Mable|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1975|location=Norman|pages=7}}</ref>{{Rp|25.}} |
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Parfleche have been historically recognized for their region-specific and uniquely painted designs.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|403.}} This is consistent with the immense geographic, linguistic, and ethnic diversity of the [[Plains Indians|Plains]], where many nomadic and semi-nomadic Indigenous peoples routinely [[Human migration|migrated]] to different areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Spier|first=Leslie|date=1931|title=Plains Indian Parfleche Designs|url=|journal=Publications in Anthropology|volume=4|pages=4|via=}}</ref> This level of movement is displayed in the diversity of parfleche traits, that modern comparative studies have characterized in over twenty ways, including: the use of color, painting techniques, presence or absence of a [[Fringe (trim)|fringe]], flap shape, border designs, the number and position of tie holes, and the amount of unpainted exterior surface.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|126.}} While the most frequent decorative elements were [[Geometric shape|geometric shapes]] such as straight or curved lines, triangles, and rhomboids, the specific combinations of these shapes by different artists resulted in an endless variety of patterns.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|77.}} |
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== Construction == |
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To illustrate, while most [[Sioux|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ]] parfleche were painted in bold colors and featured heavy black outlining, the Tsehestano parfleche only used subdued colors and displayed a large amount of unpainted surface.<ref>''Small Rawhide Carrying Case, Painted Decoration.'' 1867-1899. Photograph. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge. </ref><ref name=":12" />{{Rp|92-108.}} Hinono'eino, who were allies and neighbors to both nations, borrowed equally from them, and this resulted in some of their parfleche featuring the delicate colors of the Tsehestano, and others displaying the heavy outlining of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|120.}} Apart from painted designs, there was also great diversity in form, as [[Kiowa|Ka'igwu]] were known to create large cylinders to store rolled [[War bonnet|feather headdresses]], but [[Lakota people|Lakȟóta]] only produced small cylinders to hold smaller ceremonial items.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|128.}} |
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| ⚫ | Historically parfleches were almost exclusively made by women.<ref name=Medicine>{{Cite book|title="Women's Work: An Examination of Women's Role in Plains Indian Arts and Crafts" in The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women| editor1= [[Patricia Albers]] | editor2=[[Beatrice Medicine]]|last=Schneider|first=Mary Jane|publisher=University Press of America|year=1983|location=Washington|pages=101–121}}</ref>{{Rp|101.}} Creation began with “fleshing”, or the removal of the hide from animals such as elk, deer, and most commonly [[American bison|buffalo]].<ref name=Morrow />{{Rp|29.}} Craftswomen employed [[bone tool]]s fashioned as chisels for fleshing.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Plains Indian Painting: A description of an Aboriginal American art|last=Ewers|first=John C.|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1939|location=Palo Alto|pages=4}}</ref> The hide was stretched by staking it above the ground, and scraped to an even thickness.<ref name=Morrow />{{Rp|29–30.}} A glutinous wash (prepared of [[Opuntia|prickly pear cactus]] juice or [[animal glue]]) was applied for protection before the moist hide was painted.<ref name=Morrow />{{Rp|32.}} Until the 1890s, natural paints were overwhelmingly used, formed using substances such as [[charcoal]] for black, [[algae]] for green, and yellow [[ochre]] for red.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|44.}} Because artists had a limited amount of time to paint the parfleche design, they had to work with boldness and expertise as revisions were not possible.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|53.}} Once the paint was dry, the craftswomen de-haired the opposite side of the hide using a “stoning” method, and cut the outline of the parfleche using a [[Knapping|flint]] or metal knife.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|54.}} Lastly, the container was folded into its chosen shape and holes were cut or burned to insert ties and laces.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|54.}} |
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=== Craftswomen's guilds === |
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Historically, the Native women with the most talent in producing parfleches, the painted designs, and similar items, have held respected positions in their communities.<ref name=Medicine />{{Rp|101.}}<ref name=Lycett/>{{Rp|716.}} These women historically formed local [[guild]]s, choosing elders to oversee the preservation, practice and teaching of these skills to their [[Mentorship|proteges]].<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|54.}} The guilds can also be credited with the consistency in parfleche design across multiple nations, as they preserve and pass down the customary designs, symbolism, meanings, and techniques.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|105.}} |
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As parfleche designs reflected local preferences, scholars have suggested that they served a political role as [[Flag|flags]] for the many nations across the Plains.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}} This is plausible as they were often constructed in pairs, and hung on both sides of the horse during travel.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}} Due to their large size and bold, unique designs, they would have been easily recognized from afar by both enemies and allies.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}}<ref>Hillers, John K. ''Group of Five Near Elk-Skin's Tipi''. 1873. Photograph. National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.</ref> Research also finds that in contrast to less political objects, such as [[Moccasin|moccasins]], parfleche designs were almost never transmitted to regional enemies and only selectively borrowed by allies and trade partners.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}} The geographical distribution of parfleche characteristics also reveals the key role of local trade networks, such as the [[Shoshone|Sosoni]] Rendezvous and the Middle Missouri trade system in disseminating design features.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|95.}} |
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While parfleches have been stolen, collected, and admired as art pieces, their 19th-century creators (renowned in their own communities during their own times) have remained largely unknown to colonial anthropologists, collectors, and museum curators, and thus their names tend not to be known.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|25.}} |
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== Spiritual Symbolism == |
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While parfleche were largely used for the practical purposes of transporting and storing goods, their production and use could also have a spiritual aspect.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|145.}} For instance, the common geometric shape of the diamond was symbolic for the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, who believed it represented the turtle and women’s sacred power.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|246.}} Similarly, Apsáalooke believed the diamond was a symbol for the sand lizard, who was a talisman with protective power.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|246.}} In other instances, celestial symbols such as the sun, moon or morning star could also be incorporated into designs, reflecting the world views of the nation they came from.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|247.}} |
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Lastly, during the designing stage, Hinono'eino women believed they would receive spiritual assistance from the "Whirlwind Woman", who was known to be the first woman.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|248.}} Likewise,Očhéthi Šakówiŋ women believed they would be given guidance on designs through dreams by the "Double Woman", and this sacred design would then be copied by other female artists in the community.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|145.}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist}} |
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== External links== |
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* |
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{{wikibooks|A Compendium of Useful Information for the Practical Man/Indian Lore/Indian Bags}} |
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*{{Cite web|url=http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?catids=1&objtypetxt=parfleche&src=1-5 |title=Images of parfleche in the Smithsonian's collections |publisher=National Museum of the American Indian |access-date=September 8, 2010}} |
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{{Bags}} |
{{Bags}} |
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[[Category:Bags]] |
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[[Category:Indigenous culture of the Great Plains]] |
[[Category:Indigenous culture of the Great Plains]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Indigenous culture of the Plateau]] |
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[[Category:Leather goods]] |
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{{NorthAm-native-stub}} |
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Latest revision as of 15:46, 26 October 2023
A parfleche is a Native American rawhide container that is embellished by painting, incising, or both.
Envelope-shaped parfleches have historically been used to contain items such as household tools or foods, such as dried meat or pemmican. They were commonly made in pairs and hung from saddles. Their designs may have once served as maps.[2] In contemporary usage, they may carry social, spiritual, and symbolic meaning, or be part of dance or parade regalia.
The bags are usually decorated with a distinctive style of graphic artwork, often symbolizing landscape features such as rivers and mountains.[2] Historically women were the main creators of parfleches,[1] first painting stretched-out raw hides, then shaping them into their final form. In the 21st century, both women and men make them.
Overview[edit]
The increased mobility among the post-contact Plains Indians horse culture required that essential goods such as preserved foods (including pemmican), clothing, medicines, and ceremonial items be transported efficiently in lightweight and weatherproof packaging.[3]: 29. While the most common form of the parfleche was the folded envelope or flat wallet, they were also constructed as laced flat cases, cylinders, and trunks.[3]: 59.
The production of parfleche bags declined drastically when mercenaries hired by the US federal government slaughtered the buffalo herds to the brink of extinction. The federal government forced Indigenous peoples to relocate onto government-partitioned reservations.[3]: 38. While less visible to the colonists who were collecting them for museums, some tribes, particularly the Nez Perce were able to continue hunting and making parfleches throughout the 20th century. The Niisitapi and Lakota people continue to produce parfleches today.[3]: 39.
Etymology[edit]
The name "parfleche" was initially used by French fur traders in the region, and derives from the French language parer meaning "to parry" or "to defend", and flèche meaning "arrow".[4]: 717. "Parfleche" was also used to describe tough rawhide shields, but later used primarily for these decorated rawhide containers.[4]: 717. Different Indigenous peoples have their own names for these versatile packages, including ho'sēō'o (Cheyenne),[5] bishkisché (Apsáalooke)[6] and ho'úwoonó3 (Hinono'eino).[7][8]: 25.
Construction[edit]
Historically parfleches were almost exclusively made by women.[1]: 101. Creation began with “fleshing”, or the removal of the hide from animals such as elk, deer, and most commonly buffalo.[8]: 29. Craftswomen employed bone tools fashioned as chisels for fleshing.[9] The hide was stretched by staking it above the ground, and scraped to an even thickness.[8]: 29–30. A glutinous wash (prepared of prickly pear cactus juice or animal glue) was applied for protection before the moist hide was painted.[8]: 32. Until the 1890s, natural paints were overwhelmingly used, formed using substances such as charcoal for black, algae for green, and yellow ochre for red.[3]: 44. Because artists had a limited amount of time to paint the parfleche design, they had to work with boldness and expertise as revisions were not possible.[3]: 53. Once the paint was dry, the craftswomen de-haired the opposite side of the hide using a “stoning” method, and cut the outline of the parfleche using a flint or metal knife.[3]: 54. Lastly, the container was folded into its chosen shape and holes were cut or burned to insert ties and laces.[3]: 54.
Craftswomen's guilds[edit]
Historically, the Native women with the most talent in producing parfleches, the painted designs, and similar items, have held respected positions in their communities.[1]: 101. [4]: 716. These women historically formed local guilds, choosing elders to oversee the preservation, practice and teaching of these skills to their proteges.[3]: 54. The guilds can also be credited with the consistency in parfleche design across multiple nations, as they preserve and pass down the customary designs, symbolism, meanings, and techniques.[3]: 105.
While parfleches have been stolen, collected, and admired as art pieces, their 19th-century creators (renowned in their own communities during their own times) have remained largely unknown to colonial anthropologists, collectors, and museum curators, and thus their names tend not to be known.[3]: 25.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ a b c d Schneider, Mary Jane (1983). Patricia Albers; Beatrice Medicine (eds.). "Women's Work: An Examination of Women's Role in Plains Indian Arts and Crafts" in The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women. Washington: University Press of America. pp. 101–121.
- ^ a b Goes In Center, Jhon (Oglala Lakota), "Native American and First Nations' GIS" for Native Geography 2000
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Torrence, Gaylord (1994). The American Indian Parfleche. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 29.
- ^ a b c Lycett, Stephen J. (2015). "Differing Patterns of Material Culture Intergroup Variation on the High Plains: Quantitative Analyses of Parfleche Characteristics vs. Moccasin decoration". American Antiquity. 80: 714–731.
- ^ "English - Cheyenne". cdkc.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-31.
- ^ "Crow Dictionary". dictionary.crowlanguage.org. Retrieved 2019-05-31.
- ^ "Arapaho Lexical Dictionary". verbs.colorado.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-31.
- ^ a b c d Morrow, Mable (1975). Indian rawhide: An American folk art. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 7.
- ^ Ewers, John C. (1939). Plains Indian Painting: A description of an Aboriginal American art. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. p. 4.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: A Compendium of Useful Information for the Practical Man/Indian Lore/Indian Bags
- "Images of parfleche in the Smithsonian's collections". National Museum of the American Indian. Retrieved September 8, 2010.