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Krummholz (German: krumm, "crooked, bent, twisted" and Holz, "wood") — also called knieholz ("knee timber") — is a type of stunted, deformed vegetation encountered in the subarctic and subalpine tree line landscapes, shaped by continual exposure to fierce, freezing winds. Under these conditions, trees can only survive where they are sheltered by rock formations or snow cover. As the lower portion of these trees continues to grow, the coverage becomes extremely dense near the ground.^[1] In Newfoundland and Labrador, the formation is known as tuckamore.^[2]^[3]^[4] Krummholz trees are also found on beaches such as the Oregon coast, where trees can become much taller than their subalpine cousins.

Species

Common trees showing krummholz formation include European spruce, mountain pine, balsam fir, red spruce, black spruce, subalpine fir, subalpine larch, Engelmann spruce, whitebark pine, limber pine, Bristlecone pine, and lodgepole pine. Instances of the krummholz form of black spruce, Picea mariana, are found in the northern Canadian boreal forests.^[5] Krummholz-form black spruce and balsam fir are abundant in the alpine transition zone of the White Mountains of Maine and New Hampshire and of the same zone in the Green Mountains of Vermont.^{[citation needed]}

Subalpine fir is the most common associate of spruce in krummholz vegetation. Other associated coniferous species include alpine larch (Larix lyallii), whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), limber pine (Pinus flexilis), and western white pine (Pinus monticola) in southern British Columbia, and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) on the eastern slopes of the Coast Range and in the Revelstoke area of British Columbia. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. contorta) is a minor associate in most of the British Columbia interior, except in dry alpine areas of the southwest Cariboo/Chilcotin district where it is abundant (Pojar 1985).^[6] Ericaceous species (Vaccinium scoparium, V. membranaceum, V. caespitosum, Cassiope mertensiana, Phyllodoce empetriformis) are common in the snow accumulation zone around the base of krummholz colonies.

Flag tree

A variation of krummholz formation is a flag tree or banner tree. Branches on the windward side are killed or deformed by the almost constant strong winds, giving the tree a characteristic flag-like appearance. Where the lower portion of the tree is protected by snow cover or rocks, only the exposed upper portion may have this appearance. This is a rather common occurrence in red spruce trees of the highest peaks of the central and even the southern Appalachian Mountains, and is most often seen in the windswept high peaks and plateaus of the Allegheny Mountains.^{[citation needed]} This formation most notably occurs with high frequency in the Dolly Sods and Roaring Plains West Wilderness areas along the Allegheny Front in eastern West Virginia, typically occurring at elevations of 3,800 feet (1,200 m) and higher.^{[citation needed]} Trade winds in tropical regions near the equator can also shape trees in a similar manner.^[1] The southernmost reaches of the Magellanic subpolar forests of Chile contain many flag trees also.^{[citation needed]}

References

^ ^a ^b "The subalpine ecosystem". National Park Service. Archived from the original on August 9, 2007. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
^ Alden, John; Mastrantonio, J. Louise; Ødum, Soren (June 29, 2013). Forest Development in Cold Climates. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781489916006.
^ Burzynski, Michael (1999). Gros Morne National Park. Breakwater Books. ISBN 9781550811353.
^ Gouthro, Jen (June 21, 2014). "Tuckamore: The little tree growth that could". Cape Breton Post. Retrieved July 23, 2017.
^ C. Michael Hogan. 2008. Black Spruce: Picea mariana, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg Archived October 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
^ Pojar, J. 1985. Ecological classification of lodgepole pine in Canada. pp. 77–88 in D.M. Baumgartner, R.G. Krebill, J.T. Arnott and G.F. Weeman (compilers). Lodgepole pine the species and its management. Symp. Proc.. Cooperative Extension, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

External links

Media related to Krummholz at Wikimedia Commons
Krumholtz formation in Hudson Bay subarctic landscape

[NPS-1] "The subalpine ecosystem". National Park Service. Archived from the original on August 9, 2007. Retrieved January 29, 2009.

[2] Alden, John; Mastrantonio, J. Louise; Ødum, Soren (June 29, 2013). Forest Development in Cold Climates. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781489916006.

[3] Burzynski, Michael (1999). Gros Morne National Park. Breakwater Books. ISBN 9781550811353.

[4] Gouthro, Jen (June 21, 2014). "Tuckamore: The little tree growth that could". Cape Breton Post. Retrieved July 23, 2017.

[5] C. Michael Hogan. 2008. Black Spruce: Picea mariana, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg Archived October 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

[pojar1-6] Pojar, J. 1985. Ecological classification of lodgepole pine in Canada. pp. 77–88 in D.M. Baumgartner, R.G. Krebill, J.T. Arnott and G.F. Weeman (compilers). Lodgepole pine the species and its management. Symp. Proc.. Cooperative Extension, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.

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@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 [[File:Silhouettes of wind sculpted Krumholz trees.jpg|thumb|Wind-sculpted ''krummholz'' trees, Ona Beach, Oregon]]
 '''''Krummholz'''''  ({{lang-de|krumm}}, "crooked, bent, twisted" and ''Holz'', "wood") — also called '''''knieholz''''' ("knee timber") — is a type of stunted, deformed vegetation encountered in the [[subarctic]] and [[subalpine zone|subalpine]] [[tree line]] landscapes, shaped by continual exposure to fierce, freezing winds. Under these conditions, trees can only survive where they are sheltered by rock formations or [[snow]] cover. As the lower portion of these trees continues to grow, the coverage becomes extremely dense near the ground.<ref name="NPS">{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/romo/resources/plantsandanimals/ecosystem/subalpine.html |title=The subalpine ecosystem |access-date=2009-01-29 |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809001440/http://www.nps.gov/archive/romo/resources/plantsandanimals/ecosystem/subalpine.html |archive-date=2007-08-09}}</ref> In [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], the formation is known as '''tuckamore'''.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XVP0BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA212 |title=Forest Development in Cold Climates |last1=Alden |first1=John |last2=Mastrantonio |first2=J. Louise |last3=Ødum |first3=Soren |date=2013-06-29 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781489916006 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqhqZ3rM7eMC&pg=PA86 |title=Gros Morne National Park |last=Burzynski |first=Michael |date=1999 |publisher=Breakwater Books |isbn=9781550811353 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.capebretonpost.com/opinion/columnists/2014/6/19/tuckamore-the-little-tree-growth-that-c-3769304.html |title=Tuckamore: The little tree growth that could |last=Gouthro |first=Jen |date=2014-06-21 |work=Cape Breton Post |access-date=2017-07-23 }}</ref> ''Krummholz'' trees are also found on beaches such as the Oregon coast, where trees can become much taller than their subalpine cousins.
 ==Species==
 [[File:Windswept trees in Colorado.jpg|thumb|''[[Picea engelmannii]]'' flag tree in Colorado, at the tree line]]
@@ Line 13: / Line 12: @@
 [[Abies lasiocarpa|Subalpine fir]] is the most common associate of spruce in ''krummholz'' vegetation. Other associated [[Pinophyta|coniferous]] species include alpine larch (''[[Larix lyallii]]''), whitebark pine (''[[Pinus albicaulis]]''), limber pine (''[[Pinus flexilis]]''), and western white pine (''[[Pinus monticola]]'') in southern British Columbia, and mountain hemlock (''[[Tsuga mertensiana]]'') on the eastern slopes of the Coast Range and in the Revelstoke area of [[British Columbia]]. Lodgepole pine ([[Pinus contorta|''Pinus contorta'' var. ''contorta'']]) is a minor associate in most of the British Columbia interior, except in dry alpine areas of the southwest Cariboo/Chilcotin district where it is abundant (Pojar 1985).<ref name="pojar1">Pojar, J. 1985. Ecological classification of lodgepole pine in Canada. pp. 77–88 ''in'' D.M. Baumgartner, R.G. Krebill, J.T. Arnott and G.F. Weeman (compilers). Lodgepole pine the species and its management. Symp. Proc.. Cooperative Extension, Washington State University, Pullman, WA.</ref> [[Ericaceae|Ericaceous species]] (''Vaccinium scoparium, V. membranaceum, V. caespitosum, Cassiope mertensiana, Phyllodoce empetriformis'') are common in the snow accumulation zone around the base of ''krummholz'' colonies.
 {{Clear}}
 ==Flag tree==
 [[File:Windswept tree TdP.jpg|right|thumb|upright|Banner tree, [[Torres del Paine]] National Park, Chile]]
 A variation of ''krummholz'' formation is a '''flag tree''' or '''banner tree'''. Branches on the [[windward]] side are killed or deformed by the almost constant strong winds, giving the tree a characteristic flag-like appearance. Where the lower portion of the tree is protected by snow cover or rocks, only the exposed upper portion may have this appearance. This is a rather common occurrence in red spruce trees of the highest peaks of the central and even the southern [[Appalachian Mountains]], and is most often seen in the windswept high peaks and plateaus of the [[Allegheny Mountains]].{{cn|date=November 2022}} This formation most notably occurs with high frequency in the [[Dolly Sods]] and [[Roaring Plains West Wilderness]] areas along the [[Allegheny Front]] in eastern [[West Virginia]], typically occurring at elevations of {{convert|3800|ft|m}} and higher.{{cn|date=November 2022}} [[Trade wind]]s in tropical regions near the equator can also shape trees in a similar manner.<ref name="NPS"/> The southernmost reaches of the [[Magellanic subpolar forests]] of Chile contain many flag trees also.{{cn}}