East Asian religions

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map showing the prevalence of "Dharmic" (dark yellow), "Taoic" (light yellow), and "Abrahamic" (purple) religions in each country.

In the study of comparative religion, a Taoic religion is a religion, or religious philosophy, that focuses on the East Asian concept of Tao ("The Way"; pinyin Dao, Korean/Japanese Do, Vietnamese Đạo). This forms a large group of religions including Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, Yiguandao, Chondogyo, Caodaism, Jeung San Do and Chen Tao . Taoic religion as a world religion group is comparable to Abrahamic religion and dharmic religion.[1] Taoic faiths claim at least 400 million members worldwide.[2]

Ancient Chinese philosophies defined Tao and advocated cultivating De in that Tao.[3] There are ancient schools that have merged into traditions under different names or are no longer active, such as Mohism and many others of the Hundred Schools of Thought, while some such as Taoism persist to the modern day. Taoic religion is usually polytheistic or nontheistic, but henotheistic, monotheistic, pantheistic, panentheistic and agnostic varieties exist, inside and outside of Asia. Taoic religion has Western adherents, though their interpretation may significantly differ from traditional East Asian thought and culture.

Tao

File:Character dao.svg
The Chinese character for "Tao".
Main article: Tao

Tao can be roughly stated to be the flow of the universe, or the force behind the natural order.[4] Tao is believed to be the influence that keeps the universe balanced and ordered. Tao is associated with nature, due to a belief that nature demonstrates the Tao.[5] The flow of chi, as the essential energy of action and existence, is compared to the universal order of Tao. Tao is compared to what it is not, like the negative theology of Western scholars.[6] It is often considered to be the source of both existence and non-existence.[7]

De

Further information: De (Chinese)

Tao is also associated with a "proper" attitude, morality and lifestyle. In practice, this meaning varies among the Taoic faiths and their branches. This is intimately tied to the complex concept of De, or literally "virtue". De is the active expression of Tao.[8] Generally, those religions closer to Taoism express this as "integrity" or "wholeness", while those faiths closer to Confucianism express this concept as "morality" or "sound character".[9]

Taoic Faiths

The three major Taoic faiths are Taoism, Confucianism and Shinto.[10] Buddhism though classified as a dharmic religion, has significant Taoic features in East Asia.

Taoism

File:OldWiseTaoistMonk.PNG
A traditional Taoist monk.
Main article: Taoism

Taoism is a variety of related religious and philosophical traditions. Categorization of Taoist sects and movements is very controversial. Taoist propriety and ethics places an emphasis on the Three Jewels of the Tao; love, moderation, humility.[11] Taoist theology focuses on doctrines of wu wei ("non-action"), spontaneity, humanism, relativism and emptiness.[12][13] Most traditional Chinese Taoists are polytheistic. There are disagreements regarding the proper composition of this pantheon.[5] Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the head diety. Intellectual, or "elite", Taoism usually presents Laozi and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon.[14] Nature and ancestor spirits are common in popular Taoism. But this sort of shamanism is eschewed for an emphasis on internal alchemy among the "elite" Taoists. Tao itself is rarely an object of worship, being treated more like the Central Asian concept of atman.[15]


Confucianism

Main article: Confucianism
Confucian temple in Kaohsiung, Republic of China (Taiwan).


Confucianism is a complex system of moral, social, political, and religious thought, influential in the history of East Asia. It is commonly associated with legalism but it rejects legalism for ritualism.[15] It also endorses meritocracy as the ideal of nobility.[5] Confucianism has a complicated system governing duties and etiquette in relationships. Confucian ethics focus on familial duty, loyalty and humaneness.[10] Confucianism recognizes the existence of animistic spirits, ghosts and deities. It advocates paying them proper respect, but paradoxically also encourages avoiding them.[16] Confucian thought is notable as the framework upon which the syncretic Neo-Confucianism was built.[9]


Shinto

The altar of a Shinto temple.
Main article: Shinto

Shinto is an animistic folk religion from Japan. Shinto literally means "the way of the gods". Shinto and Asian Buddhism are inextricably linked in Japan.[15] Many Japanese Shintoists also identify themselves as Buddhists. Japanese Pure Land Buddhism is deeply tied with the Shinto faith.[17] Shinto practitioners commonly affirm tradition, family, nature, cleanliness and ritual observation as core values.[10] Taoic influence is significant in their beliefs about nature and self-mastery. Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life.[18] Shrines have a significant place in Shintoism, reflecting the animistic veneration of the kami.[19] Folk Shinto places an emphasis on shamanism, particularly divination, spirit possession and faith healing. "Sect" Shinto is a diverse group including mountain-worshippers and Confucian Shintoists.[18]

Chan Buddhism

Main article: Chan Buddhism

Chan Buddhism is a form of Mahayana Buddhism deeply influenced by Taoic religion.[20][15] Chan emphasizes awareness, meditation and direct experience. Chan Buddhism has a critical view of textual hermeneutics, the limitations of language and dogmatic assertions.[21] Zazen, sitting meditation, is a central practice. Eschewing scriptural study for direct communication, Chan places a high regard for the teacher-disciple relationship.[22] Ideal instructors are lionized in Chan stories. The lineage of a teaching is considered more important than its comparison with a test of orthodoxy.[15] Dialogues and stories called koans are a distinctive feature of Chan Buddhism. Koans often appear paradoxical or meaningless, but they are intended to transform the perspective or consciousness of a disciple.[23]

Taoism and Confucianism

A painting of Confucious presenting a young Buddha to Laozi.

The terms Tao and De are shared religious and philosophical terms between Taoism and Confucianism.[24] The authorship of the Tao Te Ching is assigned to Laozi, who is traditionally thought to be a teacher of Confucius.[5] However, he appears to be reacting against Confucian doctrine, which potentially suggests the text arose after Confucianism. Zhuangzi reacted to the Confucian-Mohist ethical disputes. Zhuangzi's "history of thought" casts Laozi as a prior step to the Mohists by name and the Confucians by implication. It is important to note that Laozi and Zhuangzi are usually considered mythological figures by secular scholars.[25][26][27]

Early Taoist texts reject the basic assumptions of Confucianism which relied on rituals and order, in favour of the examples of "wild" nature and individualism.[28] Historical Taoists challenged conventional morality, while Confucians considered society debased and in need of strong ethical guidance.

Interaction with Dharmic faiths

The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by interaction and syncretism with Taoic faiths, Taoism in particular.[29] Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary, because it was originally seen as a kind of foreign Taoism.[30] Chan Buddhism was particularly modified by Taoism, integrating distrust of scripture, text and even language, as well as the Taoic views of embracing "this life", dedicated practice and the "every-moment".[31] In the Tang period Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chan Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism.[32]

Buddhism was not universally welcomed, particularly among the gentry. The Buddha Dharma seemed alien and amoral to conservative and Confucian sensibilities.[33] Confucianism promoted social stability, order, strong families, and practical living. Chinese officials questioned how a monk's monasticism and personal attainment of nirvana benefited the empire.[34] However, Buddhism and Confucianism eventually reconciled after centuries of conflict and assimilation.[9]

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.[35] They did share some similar values. All three had a humanistic philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.[36] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were consciously synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school.[9]

Neo-Confucianism

A bronze statue of Confucious.
Main article: Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism was a consciously created syncretism of Taoism, Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism. It is recognized as being formulated and established during the Song dynasty, but traces its roots to scholars of the Tang dynasty. It combined Buddhist religious concepts with Taoist yin yang theory and the I Ching, and placed them on the framework of classic Confucianism.[9]

Despite Neo-Confucianism's incorporation of the "best" elements of Buddhism and Taoism, its apologists still decried the two faiths.[37] However, its influence on Chinese society has blurred the distinction between the three faiths, even into modern times. Neo-Confucianism was an officially endorsed faith for over a five centuries, deeply influencing all of East Asia.[9] It should not be conflated with New Confucianism, which is a modernist form of Confucianism rather than a syncretism of East Asian faiths.

See also

Main lists: List of basic religious topics and List of religious topics

Template:Religion-related topics

Footnotes and references

  1. ^ Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. Pp 71-72, 75-76. New York: NYU Press, 2001. ISBN 0814798055.
  2. ^ Religious population statistics. Source: adherents.com. These statistics are limited and do not reflect the full population of Taoic adherents due to complexities in definition and polling.
  3. ^ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. Taoism and Chinese Religion. pg 32. University of Massachusetts, 1981.
  4. ^ Cane, Eulalio Paul. Harmony: Radical Taoism Gently Applied. Pg 13. Trafford Publishing, 2002. ISBN 1412247780.
  5. ^ a b c d Hospital, Clifford G. Breakthrough: insights of the great religious discoverers. Orbis Books, 1985. ISBN ISBN 088344206X.
  6. ^ This concept of being unable to accurately describe Tao is common among Taoic religions and Taoist writings. For example, "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao; The name that can be named is not the eternal name." Tao Te Ching, First Chapter
  7. ^ See Wu Chi and Tai Chi for more information about "non-existance" and "existance" in Taoic thought.
  8. ^ Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. Pp 77-78, 88. New York: NYU Press, 2001. ISBN 0814798055.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Huang, Siu-chi. Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. Greenwood Press, 1999. ISBN 031326449X.
  10. ^ a b c Renard, John. 101 Questions and Answers on Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto. Paulist Press, 2002. ISBN 0809140918.
  11. ^ Leaman, Oliver. Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy . Pg 111. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0415173620.
  12. ^ Slingerland, Edward Gilman. Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195138996.
  13. ^ Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. Pg 78. New York: NYU Press, 2001. ISBN 0814798055.
  14. ^ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. Taoism and Chinese Religion. pg 41. University of Massachusetts, 1981.
  15. ^ a b c d e Whiting, J.R.S. Religions for Today. Nelson Thornes, 1991. ISBN 0748705864
  16. ^ Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. Pp 46, 85. New York: NYU Press, 2001. ISBN 0814798055.
  17. ^ Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. Pp. 161-162. New York: NYU Press, 2001. ISBN 0814798055.
  18. ^ a b Fu, Charles Wei-hsun & Heine, Steven. Japan in Traditional and Postmodern Perspectives. SUNY Press, 1995. ISBN 0791424693
  19. ^ Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu . Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world. pp 304-306 Blackwell Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0631206744.
  20. ^ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. Taoism and Chinese Religion. pg 48. University of Massachusetts, 1981.
  21. ^ Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu . Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world. pp 199-200, 202. Blackwell Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0631206744.
  22. ^ Sharot, Stephen. A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. Pp 72, 77. New York: NYU Press, 2001. ISBN 0814798055.
  23. ^ Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu . Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world. pp 202-203 Blackwell Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0631206744.
  24. ^ Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu . Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world. pg 254. Blackwell Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0631206744.
  25. ^ Boltz, William G. "Lao tzu Tao te ching." Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide, edited by Michael Loewe. pg 270. Berkeley: University of California, Institute of East Asian Studies. 1993. (Laozi)
  26. ^ Birrell, Anne. Chinese Myths. Pp 16-17. University of Texas Press. 2000. ISBN 0292708793. (Zhuangzi)
  27. ^ Willis, Roy G. World Mythology. Pg 90 (Zhuangzi). Pg 98 (Laozi). Owl Books. 1995.
  28. ^ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. Taoism and Chinese Religion. pg 39. University of Massachusetts, 1981.
  29. ^ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. Taoism and Chinese Religion. pg 46. University of Massachusetts, 1981.
  30. ^ Prebish, Charles. Buddhism: A Modern Perspective. Pg 192. Penn State Press, 1975. ISBN 0271011955.
  31. ^ Dumoulin, Heinrich, Heisig, James W. & Knitter, Paul. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China). Pp 68, 70-73, 167-168. World Wisdom, Inc, 2005. ISBN 0941532895.
  32. ^ Dumoulin, Heinrich, Heisig, James W. & Knitter, Paul. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China). Pp 166-167, 169-172. World Wisdom, Inc, 2005. ISBN 0941532895.
  33. ^ Dumoulin, Heinrich, Heisig, James W. & Knitter, Paul. Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China). Pp 189-190, 268-269. World Wisdom, Inc, 2005. ISBN 0941532895.
  34. ^ Prebish, Charles. Buddhism: A Modern Perspective. Pg 192. Penn State Press, 1975. ISBN 0271011955.
  35. ^ Markham, Ian S. & Ruparell, Tinu . Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world. pp 248-249. Blackwell Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0631206744.
  36. ^ Windows on Asia Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University.
  37. ^ Maspero, Henri. Translated by Frank A. Kierman, Jr. Taoism and Chinese Religion. pg 52-53. University of Massachusetts, 1981.
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