Parfleche

A parfleche is an Indigenous, decorated rawhide container originating from the Great Plains region in the seventeenth century. While buffalo-rawhide crafts (such as painted robes) were at their zenith during the time of European contact, scholars pair the development of the parfleche with the introduction of the horse to North America, by the Spanish. The increased mobility and nomadic lifestyle allowed by the horse, required essential goods such as preserved foods (including pemmican), clothing, and even ceremonial items to be transported efficiently in lightweight and weatherproof packaging. While the most common form of the parfleche was the folded envelope, they were also constructed as laced flat cases, cylinders, and trunks.

The word "parfleche" was originally used by French fur traders, combining parer which means "to defend," and fleche which means "arrow”. It was initially used to describe tough rawhide shields, but later co-opted for decorated rawhide containers. Many Indigenous peoples have their own names for these versatile packages, including hoem shot (Tsehestano), nes-kes-cha (Apsáalooke) and ham-wana (Hinono'eino). The production of parfleche declined drastically with the near extinction of the Plains buffalo herds, and the forced relocation of Indigenous peoples onto government reservations. Some nations, such as Niisitapi continued to produce parfleche into the twentieth century.

Manufacture

Parfleche are exceptional crafts as their historical production was almost exclusively the work of Indigenous craftswomen. Manufacturing began with “fleshing”, or the removal of the hide from animals such as elk, deer, and most commonly buffalo. Craftswomen employed bone tools fashioned as chisels for fleshing. Then, they stretched the hide by staking it above the ground, and scraped it to an even thickness. Next, a glutinous wash (prepared of prickly pear cactus juice or animal glue) was applied for protection, before the painting the moist hide. Until the 1890s, natural paints were predominately used and they were formed using substances such as charcoal (for black), algae (for green) and yellow ochre (for red). Because artists had a limited amount of time to paint the parfleche design, they had to work with boldness and expertise as revisions were not possible. Once the paint dried, craftswomen de-haired the opposite side of the the hide using a “stoning” method, and cut the outline of the parfleche using a flint or metal knife. Lastly, the container was folded into its chosen shape and holes were cut or burned to insert ties and laces.

Social Influences

As parfleche production was largely undertaken by Indigenous craftswomen, this role effected their identities and positions in their communities. For instance, a female artist who was exceptionally skilled in construction and painting could enjoy a prestigious and respected position in her society. Moreover, there is evidence that Indigenous craftswomen were often organized into local guilds and had elected senior leaders who would pass on skills, knowledge and spiritual guidance to their proteges. Guilds can also be credited with the consistency in parfleche design among many nations, as they enforced rules for the creation and design of the crafts.

Modern historians note the unfortunate truth, that while parfleche are collected and admired as art pieces today, their female creators (who would have been renowned in their own communities) remain largely unknown to us.

Distinctive Designs

Parfleche have been historically recognized for their region-specific and uniquely painted designs. This is consistent with the immense geographic, linguistic, and ethnic diversity of the Plains, where many nomadic and semi-nomadic Indigenous peoples routinely migrated to different areas. This level of movement is displayed in the diversity of parfleche traits, that modern comparative studies have characterized in over twenty ways, including: the use of color, painting techniques, presence or absence of a fringe, flap shape, border designs, the number and position of tie holes, and the amount of unpainted exterior surface. While the most frequent decorative elements were geometric shapes such as straight or curved lines, triangles, and rhomboids, the specific combinations of these shapes by different artists resulted in an endless variety of patterns.

To illustrate, while most Očhéthi Šakówiŋ parfleche were painted in bold colors and featured heavy black outlining, the Tsehestano parfleche only used subdued colors and displayed a large amount of unpainted surface. Hinono'eino, who were allies and neighbors to both nations, borrowed equally from them, and this resulted in some of their parfleche featuring the delicate colors of the Tsehestano, and others displaying the heavy outlining of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ. Apart from painted designs, there was also great diversity in form, as Ka'igwu were known to create large cylinders to store rolled feather headdresses, but Lakȟóta only produced small cylinders to hold smaller ceremonial items.

Political Significance

As parfleche designs reflected local preferences, scholars have suggested that they served a political role as flags for the many nations across the Plains. This is plausible as they were often constructed in pairs, and hung on both sides of the horse during travel. Due to their large size and bold, unique designs, they would have been easily recognized from afar by both enemies and allies. Research also finds that in contrast to less political objects, such as moccasins, parfleche designs were almost never transmitted to regional enemies and only selectively borrowed by allies and trade partners. The geographical distribution of parfleche characteristics also reveals the key role of local trade networks, such as the Sosoni Rendezvous and the Middle Missouri trade system in disseminating design features.

Spiritual Symbolism

While parfleche were largely used for the practical purposes of transporting and storing goods, their production and use could also have a spiritual aspect. For instance, the common geometric shape of the diamond was symbolic for the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, who believed it represented the turtle and women’s sacred power. Similarly, Apsáalooke believed the diamond was a symbol for the sand lizard, who was a talisman with protective power. In other instances, celestial symbols such as the sun, moon or morning star could also be incorporated into designs, reflecting the world views of the nation they came from.

Lastly, during the designing stage, Hinono'eino women believed they would receive spiritual assistance from the "Whirlwind Woman", who was known to be the first woman. Likewise,Očhéthi Šakówiŋ women believed they would be given guidance on designs through dreams by the "Double Woman", and this sacred design would then be copied by other female artists in the community.

See also

• Plains hide painting