Straight razor and History of Nigeria (1979–99): Difference between pages
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{{History of Nigeria}} |
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[[Image:Rasiermesser.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A straight razor with round point, full hollow ground blade and double stabiliser.<ref name="Razor central parts naming"/><ref name="Knife centre"/>]] |
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==Second Republic== |
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A '''straight razor''' is a [[razor]] with a [[blade]] that can fold into its handle.<ref name="Dictionary definition">[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/straight%20razor Dictionary definition]: "a razor having a stiff blade made of steel that is hinged to a handle into which it folds", also: "A razor consisting of a blade hinged to a handle into which it slips when not in use", and "a razor with a straight cutting edge enclosed in a case that forms a handle when the razor is opened for use"</ref><ref name="Cambridge Dictionary ">[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=19266&dict=CALD Cambridge Dictionary definition]: "a cut-throat razor UK noun [C] (US straight razor) a type of old-fashioned razor with a long blade that folds out from the handle"</ref> They are also called '''open razors''' and '''cut-throat razors''', the latter particularly in the [[United Kingdom]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Australia]].<ref name="New Zealand"/><ref name="Collins Dictionary definition">[http://dictionary.reverso.net/english-definitions/cut-throat%20razor Collins Dictionary definition]: "1 a person who cuts throats; murderer. 2 (Also called) cut-throat razor (Brit) a razor with a long blade that usually folds into the handle , (U.S. name) straight razor"</ref><ref name="Dovo Solingen">[http://web.archive.org/web/20070222064945/http://www.dovo.com/e/seiten/a_messer.html Dovo Solingen Meisterwerke through Internet Archive]: "Today the market is dominated by electric shavers and simple wet shavers" (Includes blade classification info) and: "...square or sharp point for the experienced shaver" and: "While flat razors are sharpened using strops with wooden handles where the razor can be "pushed" along the strop, ½ or full hollow-ground razors are sharpened using hanging strops" and "The heat-treatment, the so-called "hardening", is extremely important for the blank. Depending on the quality of the steel, the blank is heated up to 1.300°C and subsequently chilled in a special oil. The temperature limits are often crucial. The subsequent tempering at 200 to 400°C, depending on the type of steel, gives the blade its elasticity and toughness."</ref>. |
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''Main article [[Nigerian Second Republic]]'' |
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A [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]] was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji [[Shehu Shagari]] of the [[National Party of Nigeria]] (NPN) was elected president. Obasanjo peacefully transferred power to Shagari, becoming the first head of state in Nigerian history to willingly step down. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly. In August 1983 Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.<ref>Falola, Toyin, and Julius Omozuanvbo Ihonvbere. ''The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic'', 1979-1983. London: Zed Books, 1985</ref> |
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Although straight razors were once the principal method of manual shaving, they have been largely overshadowed by the safety razor, incorporating a disposable blade. Electric razors of various types have also been an available alternative especially since the 1950s.<ref name="britannica"/><ref name="ohiokids.org">[http://www.ohiokids.org/tellzall/2007/february.shtml ohiokids.org]: "this type of razor first appeared in England in the 1700s, and remained the mainstay of men's razors until the twentieth century", and: "As the use of straight razors went out of fashion, most barbershops chose not to offer the service anymore", and: "By the mid-1900s, fewer and fewer people still used the traditional straight-edge razor", also: "There are still a small number of companies that manufacture the straight-edge razor, and some men claim that this old-fashioned razor provides the best possible shave."</ref><ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> Despite that, straight razors still hold a market share and forums and outlets exist providing products, information and help to straight razor users. Straight razor manufacturers still exist in [[Europe]], [[Japan]], [[Asia]] and the [[United States]]. Antique straight razors are also available and traded in an active market to this day. |
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===Overthrow=== |
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Straight razors require considerable skill to [[hone]], [[Razor strop|strop]], and use correctly.<ref name="msnbc.msn.com">[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6886845/ msnbc.msn.com] "Why do so many guys find this so hard to achieve? Because proper shaving has become a lost art. Shaving is one of those glorious male traditions that used to be passed down from father to son, but somewhere along the line, when shaving became more about cheap, disposable razors than a nice, precision-made metal tool in your hand, it became a brainless routine to rush through in the morning without even thinking about it", and: "...the almighty straight razor, also known as a “cut throat”. The most serious at-home shavers gravitate toward the straight for its unequalled shave as well as its history and cool factor..."</ref> The required skills were once a major portion of the curriculum in barber colleges. |
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On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General [[Muhammadu Buhari]] emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member General [[Ibrahim Babangida]] in August 1985. Babangida cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover. During his first days in office President Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency plan he announced pay cuts for the military, police, civil servants and the private sector. President Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation in decisionmaking by opening a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures. The public response convinced Babangida of intense opposition to an economic recovery package dependent on an [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) loan. |
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== History == |
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[[Image:Rasoir Acy-Romance.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Razor made of [[bronze]] from the first [[Iron age]]. The handle is fixed and the razor has two cutting edges. Decorative ridges can also be seen following the direction of the handle into the blade. The pointed tip of the blade indicates additional uses as a knife or a weapon. The three circular holes on the handle and the blade body indicate the possibility they could be used for [[fastener]]s in a [[spear]] head as well. It is on exhibit at the [[Ardennes]] Museum in [[France]]]] |
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==The Abortive Third Republic== |
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Various forms of razors were used throughout history, which are different in appearance but similar in use to modern straight razors. In [[prehistoric]] times blades were made from [[clam]] shells, [[shark]]'s teeth, and [[flint]].<ref name="britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9062844/razor: Encyclopaedia Britannica online]: "Prehistoric cave drawings show that clam shells, shark's teeth, and sharpened flints were used as shaving implements, and flints are still in use by certain primitive tribes. Solid gold and copper razors have been found in Egyptian tombs of the 4th millennium BC. According to the Roman historian Livy, the razor…..shaving did not become customary until the 5th century BC.", and: "The hard crucible steel produced there by Benjamin Huntsman in 1740 was first rejected and then, later, after its adoption in France, deemed superior by the local manufacturers", also: "The popularity of the long-wearing double-edged blade was greatly eclipsed by the development of inexpensive cartridge-style injector blades, designed to fit into disposable plastic handles"</ref> [[Cave painting|Drawings]] of such blades were found in prehistoric caves.<ref name="britannica"/> Some [[tribe]]s still use blades made of flint to this day.<ref name="britannica"/> Excavations in [[Egypt]] have unearthed solid [[gold]] and [[copper]] razors in [[tomb]]s dating back to the 4th millennium BC.<ref name="britannica"/> Roman [[historian]] [[Livy]] reports that the razor was introduced in [[ancient Rome]] in the 6th century B.C. by [[legend]]ary king [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus]].<ref name="britannica"/> Priscus was ahead of his time because razors did not come to general use until a century later.<ref name="britannica"/> |
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''Main article [[Nigerian Third Republic]]'' |
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President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990 which was later extended until January 1993. In early 1989 a constituent assembly completed a constitution and in the spring of 1989 political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two parties, the [[National Republican Convention]] (NRC) and the [[Social democracy|Social Democratic]] (SDP) - other parties were not allowed to register. |
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The first modern straight razor complete with decorated handles and hollow ground blades was constructed in [[Sheffield]] [[England]], the centre of the [[cutlery]] [[industry]], in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref name="britannica"/> [[Benjamin Huntsman]] produced the first superior [[hardness|hard]] steel grade, through a special [[crucible]] process, suitable for use as blade material in 1740.<ref name="britannica"/> Huntsman's process was adopted by the French sometime later;<ref name="britannica"/> albeit reluctantly at first due to nationalist sentiments.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> The English manufacturers, [[Irony|ironically]], were even more reluctant than the French to adopt the process and only did so after they saw its success in France.<ref name="britannica"/> Sheffield steel, a highly polished steel, also known as ''[[Carbon steel#Metallurgy|Sheffield silver steel]]'' and famous for its deep [[Gloss (material appearance)|gloss]] finish, is considered a superior quality steel and is still used to this day in France by such manufacturers as [[Thiers Issard]].<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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[[Image:Magdalenenberg cut and shave.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Razor (top) and nail cutter with bone handle (bottom) found in a grave of the [[Hallstatt culture]].]] |
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In the 18th and 19th centuries the wealthy had servants to shave them or could frequent barbershops.<ref name="howstuffworks.com">[http://people.howstuffworks.com/shaving.htm howstuffworks: Why Men Shave]: "Even with these developments, however, men preferred beards. This may be because shaving with a straight razor is a somewhat dangerous activity better left to a professional. Unless you live in a city and are wealthy, being able to find and afford a shaving professional is difficult. And so, all the way up to the 20th century, beards were fashionable and most men wore them. But during World War I in the United States, that all changed. And there were two reasons for that change:..."</ref> Daily shaving was not a widespread practice in the 19th century so some people never shaved.<ref name="howstuffworks.com"/> The custom of shaving every day among American men is a 20th century innovation.<ref name="STATUS REPORT ON SAFETY RAZOR BLADES INDUSTRY">[http://www.smallindustryindia.com/publications/traderep/razorblades.pdf STATUS REPORT ON SAFETY RAZOR BLADES]: ''IF WWI had made American soldiers shave themselves, WWII taught them the importance of shaving everyday. Gillette sprang into action...''</ref><ref name="howstuffworks.com"/> In the 19th century, cutlers in [[Sheffield, England]] and [[Solingen|Solingen, Germany]] produced a variety of razors. |
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In April 1990 mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and 69 accused plotters were executed after [[secret trial]]s before military tribunals. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. Despite low turnout there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils. |
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Straight razors were the most common form of shaving before the 20th century and remained that common in many countries until the 1950s.<ref name="ohiokids.org"/> [[Barber]]s were specially trained to give customers a thorough and quick shave, and a collection of straight razors ready for use was a common sight in most barbershops. Barbers still have them, but they use them less often. |
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In December 1991 state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previously banned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August. These were canceled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from standing for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential election was finally held on [[June 12]], 1993 with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place [[August 27]], 1993, the eighth anniversary of President's Babangida coming to power. |
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Straight razors eventually fell out of fashion. Their first challenger was manufactured by [[King C. Gillette]]: a double-edged safety razor with replaceable blades. Gillette's idea was the use of the "[[loss leader]]" concept, in which the razors were sold at a loss, but the replacement blades earned a high margin and provided continuous sales. They provided a less effective shave,<ref name="classicshaving">[http://www.classicshaving.com/articles/article/590351/5376.htm classicshaving]: "...Were you to ask any professional barber or long-experienced straight razor user, you would no doubt be told that no safety razor can compare to the closeness of a straight razor shave..."</ref><ref name="msnbc.msn.com"/> yet were immensely successful due to advertising campaigns and slogans denigrating the straight razor's effectiveness and calling into question its safety. |
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In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman [[M.K.O. Abiola]] won a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an interim government on August 27, 1993. He later attempted to renege this decision, but without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to [[Ernest Shonekan]], a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until elections scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension. |
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These new safety razors did not require any real instruction or tutelage to use.<ref name="msnbc.msn.com"/> It was extremely difficult to sharpen the blades, which were designed to be thrown away after one use and rusted quickly if not discarded. Thus they did not require any maintenance, merely continual replacement of blades. The safety razor also required a smaller initial investment, yet had (and has) a higher total cost over time. The straight razor, despite its advantages, lost significant market share. As they became less popular, the demand for barbers providing straight razor shaves decreased.<ref name="ohiokids.org"/> |
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==Sani Abacha== |
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Around 1960, [[stainless steel]] blades became available, which could be used more than once, thus reducing the nuisance of daily replacement and sometimes reducing the annual cost. The first such blades were made by the [[Wilkinson Sword|Wilkinson]] firm, famous maker of ceremonial [[sword]]s, in [[Sheffield]]. Soon, [[Gillette]], [[Schick]], and other manufacturers were making stainless-steel blades in a variety of styles. |
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<!-- Image with inadequate rationale removed: [[Image:Sabacha.jpg|right|thumb|146px|Sani Abacha, military dictator of Nigeria from 1993 to 1998]] --> |
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With the country sliding into chaos Defense Minister [[Sani Abacha]] assumed power and forced Shonekan's resignation on [[November 17]], 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Although promising restoration of civilian rule he refused to announce a transitional timetable until 1995. Following the annulment of the June 12 election the United States and others imposed sanctions on Nigeria including travel restrictions on government officials and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-[[narcotics]] efforts. |
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Although Abacha was initially welcomed by many Nigerians disenchantment grew rapidly. Opposition leaders formed the [[National Democratic Coalition]] (NADECO), which campaigned to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. On June 11, 1994 [[Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola]] declared himself president and went into hiding until his arrest on June 23. In response petroleum workers called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike, bringing economic life around Lagos and the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened strike in July the [[Nigeria Labour Congress]] (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August after the government imposed conditions on Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994 the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders. |
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These were followed by multiple-blade cartridges and disposable razors. For each type of replaceable blade, there is generally a disposable razor. |
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The government alleged in early 1995 that military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his deputy, retired General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal most of the accused were convicted and several death sentences were handed down. In 1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try Ogoni activist [[Ken Saro-Wiwa]] and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four Ogoni politicians. The tribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death and they were executed on November 10, 1995. |
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Some time in the 1930s, [[electric razor]]s became available. These are available in a variety of styles and prices, which can rival the cost of a good straight razor, although the whole straight-razor shaving kit can exceed the cost of an expensive electric razor. |
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On October 1, 1995 Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five political parties were approved by the regime and voter turnout for local elections in December 1997 was under 10%. On December 21, 1997 the government arrested General [[Oladipo Diya]], ten officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. The accused were tried before a [[military tribunal]] in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death. Abacha enforced authority through the federal security system which is accused of numerous human rights abuses, including infringements on freedom of speech, assembly, association, travel, and violence against women. After assuming power in June 1998 the Abubakar government took steps toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously under Abacha. |
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==Parts description== |
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[[Image:Hoffritz Solingen.JPG|right|thumb|300px|A straight razor with a somewhat rounded [[Straight razor#Point type|French point]], 1/2 hollow ground 5/8” blade and single stabiliser. The design of the razor is [[wikt:spartan|spartan]], since neither the blade nor the handle are decorated. However the shank is stamped with the manufacturer's name and place of origin details and the cutting edge is well honed and smooth. Note the elongated [[ergonomic]] design of the tang which enables better lever action when lifting the blade from the handle. The middle plug provides stability for the handle. The fluting is rather shallow and cannot be discerned in this picture. On the box the country of origin is marked as [[West Germany]], indicating the razor is old stock but in new condition. In contrast, on the shank, the country is marked as Germany. The Solingen logo on the box is the trademark of the place and as such it is shared by all Solingen based manufacturers. In fact the information label on the box is generic and its use is shared by all Solingen based manufacturers]] |
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The parts of a straight razor and their function are described as follows:<ref name="Dovo Solingen rasiermesser">[http://web.archive.org/web/20070401052153/http://www.dovo.com/e/seiten/wk_rasiermesser.html Dovo Solingen Meisterwerke (Masterworks) from Internet Archive:] (Parts of a razor)</ref><ref name="Razor central parts naming">[http://www.en.nassrasur.com/razorcentral/part.html Razor central] (Parts naming info)</ref> |
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The narrow end of the blade rotates on a pin called the '''[[wikt:pivot|pivot]]''',<ref name="Classic shaving"/> between two protective pieces called '''scales''' or '''handle'''. The upward curved metal end of the narrow part of the blade beyond the pivot is called the '''[[wikt:tang|tang]]''' and acts as a [[lever]] to help raise the blade from the handle. The narrow support piece between the tang and the main blade is called the '''[[wikt:shank|shank]]'''.<ref name="Razor central parts naming"/> Sometimes the shank is not distinguished from the tang; some refer to the whole narrow piece attached to the main blade as the tang,<ref name="Dovo Solingen rasiermesser"/> but this should be avoided as it can be confusing. The shank sometimes features decorations and the stamp of the country of origin. The top side and the underside of the shank can sometimes exhibit indentations known as '''[[fluting]]''', or '''jimps''' for a more secure grip.<ref name="Razor central parts naming"/><ref name="Classic shaving"/> The curved lower part of the main blade from the shank to the cutting edge is called the''' shoulder'''.<ref name="menessentials"> [http://web.archive.org/web/20070603120022/www.menessentials.com/oxid.php/sid/x/shp/oxbaseshop/cl/info/tpl/straight_razors.tpl menessentials from web archive] (Parts of a razor) and: "Hold the razor at a 30 degree angle to the surface of your skin and shave your first even stroke"</ref> The point where the shoulder joins the cutting edge is called the '''heel'''.<ref name="Razor central parts naming"/> |
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==Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule== |
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A thick strip of metal running transversely at the [[wikt:junction|junction]] where the main blade attaches to the shank is called the '''stabiliser'''.<ref name="Dovo Solingen rasiermesser"/><ref name="Razor central parts naming"/> The stabiliser can be double,<ref name="Razor central parts naming"/> single or can be absent in some razor models. The first stabiliser is usually very narrow and thicker and runs at the shank to blade junction, covering the shank and just spilling over to the shoulder. The second stabiliser can be distinguished since it is considerably wider and narrower, appearing after the first stabiliser and running lower into the shoulder. |
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''Main article [[Nigerian Fourth Republic]]'' |
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Abacha died of heart failure on June 8, 1998 and was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar. The military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) under Abubakar commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged coup during the Abacha regime and released almost all known civilian political detainees. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution was not implemented. The judiciary system continued to be hampered by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problems Abubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms. |
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The non cutting top of the blade is called the''' back''' or the '''spine''' while the cutting part of the blade opposite the back is called the '''cutting edge'''.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> Finally the other free end of the blade, at the opposite end of the tang, is called the '''point''' and, sometimes, the '''head''' or the '''nose'''.<ref name="menessentials"/><ref>"Nose" is used by Thiers Issard in description labels on their razor boxes</ref> |
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In August 1998 Abubakar appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. The NEC successfully held elections on December 5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999, respectively. For local elections nine parties were granted provisional registration with three fulfilling the requirements to contest the following elections. These parties were the [[People's Democratic Party (Nigeria)|People's Democratic Party]] (PDP), the [[All People's Party]] (APP), and the predominantly [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] [[Alliance for Democracy (Nigeria)|Alliance for Democracy]] (AD). Former military head of state [[Olusegun Obasanjo]], freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. The PRC promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate. |
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There are two to three pins in any handle. The middle pin, if present, is plastic coated and is called the''' plug'''.<ref name="Dovo Solingen rasiermesser"/> Its function is to stabilise the sides of the handle so that they cannot be squeezed in the middle. When folded into the scales, the blade is protected from accidental damage, and the user is protected from accidental injury. During folding, the back of the blade, being thick and normally with a curved cross section, acts as a natural stopper and prevents further rotation of the blade out of the handle from the other side. |
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== Construction== |
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==References== |
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Straight razors consist of a blade sharpened on one edge and a handle attached to the blade through a pin. The blade can then rotate in and out of the handle. The blade can be made of either stainless steel, which is difficult to strop and hone,<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> albeit resistant to rust,<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> or high-carbon steel, which is much easier to hone,<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> but stays sharp for less time, and will rust if neglected.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> Cheap stainless steel straight razors from [[Asia]] and more expensive stainless steel and carbon steel razors from [[Europe]] are available. |
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<references /> |
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==Further reading== |
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A razor blade starts as a shape called the blank supplied by the [[steel]] [[manufacturer]].<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> |
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*[[Nigerian First Republic]] |
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===Forging=== |
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*[[Nigerian Second Republic]] |
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The first step is to clean the blank using a heavy [[forge]].<ref name="Classic shaving"/><ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> The material used for open razors is steel with a minimum carbon content of 0.6%.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> This percentage of carbon content ensures optimum hardness, flexibility and resistance to wear.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> Following the forging stage, a hole is drilled in the tang at the pivot point.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> This is a crucial step, since after the steel hardening process it would be impossible to drill.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> At this pre-hardening stage any decoration of the blade by hand such as [[File (tool)|filing]] or carving is done, since the blade is malleable enough to be carved.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> This process requires great skill.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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*[[Nigerian Third Republic]] |
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*[[Nigerian Fourth Republic]] |
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[[Category:History of Nigeria]] |
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=== Hardening and tempering === |
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[[Image:Antique Razor.JPG|right|thumb|280px|An [[antique]] straight razor from Solingen, Germany with square point, full hollow ground 5/8” blade and double stabiliser. The first stabiliser is very narrow and runs at the junction where the shank meets the main blade and just spills over to the shoulder, while the second stabiliser is wider and thinner and runs all the way from the back to the heel of the blade. The fluting of the shank is visible. The middle pin of the handle (plug) makes it stable and resistant to deformation. The brand name [[etching]] is visible on the main blade. There is a metallic inlay on the handle with the manufacturer's logo. The cutting edge exhibits some erosion, a common problem for an antique razor after many stropping/honing cycles and years of use]] |
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The steel is hardened through a special process where the forged steel blade is heated up to approximately 1,300 °C (degrees [[Celsius]]).<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> This heating enables fast and uniform heating of the steel at the optimum temperature for maximum hardness. The [[tempering]] stage follows the hardening process, where the blade is heated in a bath of oil at a temperature between 200 °C - 400 °C.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> Tempering imparts the steel its flexibility and toughness according to the [[phase diagram]]s for steel.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> |
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===Grinding=== |
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Following the processes of [[Hardening (metallurgy)|hardening]] and tempering, the blanks are ground, according to the two fundamental blade [[Straight Razor#Grinding method|cross sectional]] area profiles. |
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===Finishing=== |
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Subsequent to grinding, the blade is polished to various degrees of [[Gloss (material appearance)|gloss]]. The best finish is [[mirror]] finish. Mirror finish is the only finish used if gold leafing is to be part of the decoration of the blade.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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[[Satin]] finish requires less polishing time and therefore is not as expensive to produce. This finish is mostly used with black acid etching. Satin finish can sometimes be applied, as a compromise, to the back of the blade while the mirror finish and gold leafing are applied to the more visible front of the blade. This way the blade will not be as expensive as a fully mirror finished one.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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===Blade decoration=== |
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The blade is decorated by engraving or gold leafing depending on the price. Less expensive blades undergo an [[electrolytic]] black [[acid]] [[engraving]] process. For more expensive blades, [[gold]] leafing applied by hand is employed, following a traditional process.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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===Sharpening=== |
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Sharpening is the final stage in the process. At first the blade is sharpened on a special [[grinding machine]] using a grinding wheel. Following that the blade can be honed using special honing stones. Finally the cutting edge is finished using a [[Razor strop|strop]].<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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== Handle materials and their properties == |
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Handle scales are made of various materials, including [[mother-of-pearl]], [[bakelite]], [[celluloid]], [[bone]], [[plastic]], [[wood]] and [[tortoise]] shell.<ref name="Knife centre"/><ref name="executive-shaving Material">[http://www.executive-shaving.co.uk/dovo-straight-razors.php Executive Shaving]: Straight razor material quotation: WIf required, the leather side can be rubbed with an extremely thin layer of fine abrasive paste (red paste) and - for a final polishing on a separate strop - with polishing paste (black paste), which is worked in with the ball of the thumb", also: "you should nevertheless take into account that the razor must first '''"rest"''' after use. After the razor has been carefully rinsed and dried, it should not be used again for at least 24 - 48 hours because the fine "fin" on the cutting edge straightens up again extremely slowly", and: "Changing directions without turning the razor over makes the blade become round (crowned) so that the cutting properties are lost. In this case, only resharpening can help" and: "The Handles of straight razors are made from all sorts of different materials, including wood, rubber, horn, ivory, bakelite, vegetable ivory, and metal. Inlays and additions can be of mother of pearl, silver, copper, ivory, wood, tortoiseshell."</ref> Celluloid can spontaneously [[spontaneous combustion|combust]] at elevated temperatures.<ref name="Knife centre"/> [[Bovinae|Buffalo]] [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]] tends to deform with time and it possesses form memory so it tends to [[:wikt:warp|warp]].<ref name="Knife centre"/> Mother of pearl is a brittle material and can exhibit cracks after some use.<ref name="Knife centre"/> |
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Plastic handles are flexible and can impact the blade if not handled carefully.<ref name="Knife centre"/> To remedy this, some plastic handles have a plastic coated third pin at the center called the ''plug'' that acts as a [[bridge]] between the sides of the handle. |
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[[Resin]] impregnated wooden handles are water resistant, do not deform and their weight complements the blade's to provide good overall balance for the razor.<ref name="Knife centre"/> [[Snakewood]] is also suitable for long term and intensive use.<ref name="Knife centre"/> |
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The mechanical properties of bone make it a good handle material.<ref name="Knife centre"/> Handles were once made of [[ivory]], but this has been discontinued, though [[fossil]] ivory, such as [[mammoth]], is still sometimes used, and [[antique]] razors with ivory scales are occasionally found (it is illegal to kill elephants for their ivory, but it is legal to buy a razor made before 1950). |
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== Blade geometry and characteristics== |
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[[Image:Square edge razor.JPG|right|thumb|280px|A straight razor from [[Japan]] with a square point 7/8” blade. The narrow curved end on the right is the tang. There are two copper pins (or plugs) and the handle is white plastic. The shank is smooth (without decorations or fluting) and there is no stabiliser part on the blade after the shank because the blade of this particular model is flat ground and therefore is very stable. The tang is rather stubby and short for the size of the blade, indicating poor ergonomics.The gold etching of the manufacturer can be discerned on the central part of the blade. Being flat ground this blade feels slightly heavy. The plastic handle deforms if improperly handled because it lacks the plug at the centre and care should be taken that the cutting edge does not touch it during folding. The steel of the blade is good quality and it is a competent no frills shaver, although it needs some skill to sharpen, as stainless steel blades can be stubborn.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/>]] |
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The [[geometry]] of the blade can be categorised according to the following three factors: First according to the shape of the [[:wikt:profile|profile]] of the point of the razor, second according to the type of [[grind]]ing method used for the blade; the degree of [[radius of curvature (applications)|curvature]], and therefore hollowness (or thinness), of the sides of the [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]] of the razor blade depends on the grinding method.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> Finally the blades are categorised according to their width. |
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===Classification=== |
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====Point type==== |
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Blades are, at first, categorised according to point type. There are three main types of point:<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> |
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#'''Square''', '''spike''' or '''sharp''' point, so called because the point profile is straight and terminates at a very sharp point perpendicular to the cutting edge of the razor. This type of blade is used for precise shaving in small areas but, at the risk of pinching the skin, it requires some experience in handling.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/><ref name="Razor central">[http://www.en.nassrasur.com/razorcentral/point.html Razor central] (Point classification info)</ref> |
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#'''French''' (or '''[[:wikt:oblique|oblique]]''') point. Its point profile resembles a [[quadrant|quarter circle]], but with a sharper angled curve, and while it ends in a similarly sharp point as the square point it lacks the abrupt straight line edge profile. The difference between these two is mainly [[aesthetic]].<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/><ref name="Razor central"/> |
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#'''Round point'''. As the name implies the point profile is semicircular and therefore it lacks any sharp end points. As such it is a more forgiving blade than the other two types and, although lacking the pinpoint accuracy of the other two, it is recommended for relatively new users.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/> There are also secondary edge types that derive from a combination of the above such as ''half round point'' incorporating round edges joined by a linear segment.<ref name="Razor central"/> |
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====Grinding method==== |
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[[Image:Oversized blade Razor.JPG|right|thumb|280px|A straight razor with an oversized (and rare) round point 8/8” blade with plastic handle. The etching is very poor quality and the faint ''Best Brand'' logo indicates a generic Asian import. Some [[corrosion]] is apparent on the blade at the lower end of the shoulder, near the heel. The tang is very short compared to the size of the big blade and therefore indicates poor design. The main advantage of such a large blade size is that it can carry lots of lather through multiple successive shaving strokes and it doesn't have to be rinsed as often as a smaller sized blade, if at all, for a complete shave]] |
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The second category refers to the type of grinding method used and, since it affects the [[curvature]] of the blade cross section, includes the following two main types of blade grinds:<ref name="Classic Shaving diagrams"/> |
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#'''Flat''' or '''straight''' grind, indicating that the sides of the blade cross section are [[line]]ar.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/><ref name="Razor central"/> This cross section most closely resembles a [[wedge]] and therefore this blade is sometimes called the '''wedge'''.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/><ref name="Classic Shaving diagrams"/> |
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#'''Hollow grind''', indicating that the sides of the blade cross section are [[wiktionary:Concave|concave]].<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/><ref name="Classic Shaving diagrams"/> |
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The combination of the types found in these two classification categories can, in theory, lead to a wide variety of blade types such as round point hollow ground, square point flat ground etc., but in practice some points are combined with a specific grind. As an example, a French point blade is usually flat ground.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/><ref name="Razor central"/> |
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For a blade to be most effective in cutting it must be as thin as possible. Therefore the grinding method that removes the most material from the blade, without compromising blade integrity, is to be preferred. A hollow grind produces a thinner blade than the flat grind because it removes more material from the blade (''hollows'' or ''thins'' the blade more) and is generally considered a more effective (and expensive) method.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> In fact some high-end razor manufacturers limit their production exclusively to hollow ground razors.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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====Blade width==== |
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The third and final category refers to blade width. The width of the blade is defined as the distance between the back of the blade and the cutting edge. It is expressed in units of eighth of an inch.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave">[http://www.shavemyface.com/downloads/The-Straight-Razor-Shave.pdf The-Straight-Razor-Shave]quote: "As well as the kind of steel, a razor will have its blade described by width from spine to edge, and this is traditionally expressed in eighths of an inch. The commonest size is 5/8” though some will prefer a bigger broader blade up to 7/8” or rarely 8/8”. Narrower blades of 4/8” are easily found, and a few even smaller than this. A broader blade will allow more lather to accumulate on the blade before you have to pause and rinse or wipe it off, but will be less nimble at getting into awkward spots such as under your nose", and: "Some full hollow razors will ‘sing’ - they ring like a bell when the edge is gently plucked (very nice, but the plucking isn’t good for the edge!)" and: "Others are concerned with the wastage of throw-away cartridges for their razors, or indeed, with throw-away razors. A concern for the environment might lead one to feel uneasy about choking landfills with excess plastic. Men like tools, by and large, and it is hard to have a sense of pride in a plastic razor that must be discarded after a few uses. It is true that modern razors are quick to use, and require a minimum of skill. There’s no pride to be had in that; ..." and: "but do be sure to move it in a direction at right angles to the edge, NEVER sideways, or parallel to the edge of the blade. You will cut yourself this way" and: "From the heavy and rather crude wedge blades to half-hollow and fully hollow ground blades it evolved into an ever more efficient tool for hair removal" and: "My favourite one is an American copy of the most famous of them all - the Swaty, so named after its European manufacturer", and: "Having said that, iťs still true that a straight razor will shave two generations or more if cared for properly", also: "There will be times when you get frustrated, so be prepared to put the stubborn razor to one side for a while", and: "The relative amount of hollow grinding can described by a rather confusing system of fourths, where 4/4 means a fully hollowed razor, but it is easier if we call them by descriptive names. So a wedge refers to a razor with either none or only a very slight hollowing, a full hollow has the most metal removed, and you can probably guess what a half hollow might be", and: "The blade will usually be made of carbon steel, but sometimes you will come across stainless steel blades. Most users would agree that the carbon steel is easier to hone, achieves a sharper edge and is more prone to rust. Stainless steel is harder to hone, and generally doesn’t ever get quite so sharp, and is less prone to rusting - it still can and needs the same care to avoid this."</ref> The sizes vary from 3/8” up to 7/8”, rarely 8/8”.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> A wider blade can carry more lather, much like a scoop, during multiple successive shaving strokes and thus it allows the user more shaving time and minimises blade rinse cycles. The disadvantage of the wider blade is that it is not as manoeuverable as a narrower blade. A narrow blade can shave tight facial spots such as under the nose, but it must be rinsed more often. The most popular blade width size is 5/8”.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> |
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===Stability=== |
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[[Image:Open Razor with double stabiliser.JPG|right|thumb|280px|This straight razor features a square point and a double stabiliser (therefore it is full hollow ground) and two copper pins. The 5/8” blade is decorated with a dual colour stamp. ''Made in Germany'' can be seen on the shank. The tang is not as elegant and thin as other Solingen razors but is adequate. The underside of the shank exhibits the characteristic indentations known as ''fluting'' for a more secure grip.<ref name="Razor central parts naming"/> The fluting is also repeated at the top side of the shank (not shown). The shoulder is not very round and it joins the cutting edge at an angle (just below the second stabiliser). This point is called the ''heel''.<ref name="Razor central parts naming"/> The razor handle lacks the middle plug and therefore the handle is not stabilised in the middle]] |
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The degree of hollowness and thus the cross sectional area (thickness) of the blade vary depending on the grinding method used. Higher degree of hollowness in the blade implies a thinner cross section and this affects the stability ([[bending]] or [[buckling]] properties) of the blade; the thinner the blade the more flexible it is.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/><ref name="Knife centre">[http://www.knifecenter.com/knifecenter/sharpen/instrazor.html Knife center Razor Sharpening And Using Tips]: "A double stabilizing piece (two vertical rims between tang (sic) and blade) implies 1/1 (full) [[wikt:hollow|hollow]] ground" and: "HANDLES MATERIALS Ambonia, Celluloid, Bone, Pakkawood, Mother..." and: "The ridge is created by grinding the raw triangular basic form with successive different wheel diameters: the greater wheel for the part between ridge and back; the smaller wheel for the part between ridge and cutting edge", also: "...the purpose of which is to stabilize against torsion in the horizontal plane, and to give the edge elasticity. The stabilizing piece gives the blade torsion resistance in the vertical plane."</ref> |
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====Longitudinal stabiliser==== |
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To stabilise the blade a [[wikt:ridge|ridge]] was created parallel to the cutting edge and the blade was ground in two areas, each with different degrees of hollowness; the area between the back of the blade and the ridge (less hollow) and the area between the ridge and the cutting edge (more hollow).<ref name="Knife centre"/> These two areas have different curvatures and they transition seamlessly in the ridge for a well made razor.<ref name="Knife centre"/> |
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The ridge stabilises the blade against [[wikt:flex|flexing]] in the [[wikt:longitudinal|longitudinal]] direction by acting as a [[wikt:spine|spine]] for the blade in that direction.<ref name="Knife centre"/> The distance between the ridge and the back of the blade is inversely proportional to the hollowness of the blade and is described in [[Fraction (mathematics)|fraction]]al terms in ascending steps of 1/4 as, for example, 1/4 hollow, 1/2 hollow, or 4/4 or 1/1 (full hollow).<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/><ref name="Classic Shaving diagrams">[http://www.classicshaving.com/articles/article/590351/4038.htm Blade diagrams from Classic shaving] Shows and explains what 1/4, 1/2 etc. blades look like. Quotation: "The grind of a razor represents the shape of the blade after it has been ground by the manufacturer. There are two general types of grind, namely: the concave grind and the wedge grind. The concave grinds come in full concave, 1/2 concave and 1/4 concave. ... The concave grind razor is generally preferred by most barbers. It presents a hollow appearance when observed between the back and edge of the razor, being slightly thicker between the hollow part and the extreme edge. It is often referred to as the hollow ground razor. The resistance of the beard can more easily be felt with the hollow ground razor, thus warning the practitioner to check the sharpness of the cutting edge. The 1/2 and 1/4 concave grinds have less hollowness than the full concave."</ref> Full hollow indicates that the [[Structural stability|stabilising]] ridge is very close to the midsection of the blade and the farthest from the cutting edge compared to the other grades.<ref name="Knife centre"/> This is considered the most expensive blade.<ref name="Knife centre"/> |
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At the highest end of hollow ground, more hollow than even the 1/1 grade, is the so called '''singing''' razor, so named because its blade produces a specific [[resonance|resonant]] [[Overtone|tone]] when plucked, similar to a [[guitar]] [[Strings (music)|string]], however such use is not recommended as it can [[wikt:distort|distort]] the cutting edge.<ref name="Classic shaving">[http://www.classicshaving.com/articles/article/590351/9362.htm Classic shaving]:The Thiers-Issard Story: "As can be expected, the more grinding required, such as in the case of a Full Hollow Ground "Singing" razor, and the more skill and precision required in accomplishing the grind, the higher the finished razor's resulting cost" also: "much like a guitar string, a clear resonant tone is heard" and "Thiers-Issard makes no razors of this type" also: "Its shave quality is simply superior to all other blade types", and: "The half hollowed razor is also a good choice for use while learning, as it is a very forgiving blade profile and will take more abuse both in use and daily maintenance (honing/stropping) than a full hollowed or "Singing" razor", also: "At times national pride and patriotism can be misplaced. Such is the case with steel ... For this reason Thiers-Issard uses Sheffield Silver Steel in all of its premium grade products", and "After forging, a hole is drilled in the tang that will accommodate the pivot pin."</ref><ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> Its manufacturing process is so demanding that a full 25% of the blades get rejected as not meeting standards.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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====Transverse stabiliser==== |
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In addition to the stabilising ridge which spans the longitudinal direction of the blade, sometimes blade stability is augmented by a [[wikt:transverse|transverse]] stabiliser in the form of one or two narrow strips of thicker metal running from the back of the blade to the end of the shoulder (at the junction where the blade meets the shank). This piece, if present, is simply called the stabiliser (single or double) and indicates a hollow ground blade, since a flat ground blade is massive and stable enough to not need a stabiliser.<ref name="Knife centre"/><ref name="Razor central parts naming"/> A double stabiliser implies 1/1 (full) hollow ground blade.<ref name="Knife centre"/> The stabiliser protects the blade from torsional bending in the transverse direction (transverse spine).<ref name="Knife centre"/> |
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====Stability and sharpness==== |
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[[Image:Strop, honing stone and razor.JPG|right|thumb|280px|The complete set. Antique razor made in Solingen, Germany with antique strop made in the U.S. and honing stone made in [[Slovenia]]. The strop has an open hanging hook, made of [[copper]], on the left and, just to the right of the hook, the leather is embossed with the instruction FINISH, meaning after stropping on the opposite side (marked SHARPEN), one must finish the blade by stropping on the finish side, and the strop model is DRAGON SHELL No 343 manufactured by IRWIN Leather Goods Company of [[Chicago]]. The honing stone is stamped with the [[brand name]] SWATY, (from a Slovenian grinding wheel and honing stone factory est. 1879)<ref name="SWATY">[http://www.swaty.si/fileadmin/Katalog/pdf/ANGLESKI.pdf SWATY Factory]: Product guide in English: "Catalog #54 Honing stone"</ref><ref name="Swaty factory">[http://www.swaty.si/index.php?id=11&L=1 SWATY Factory]: A short presentation of Swaty factory: "Swaty Factory was established in 1879. It is one of the oldest and biggest producers of grinding wheels in Europe..."</ref><ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/>]] |
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There is a tradeoff between stability and long term blade sharpness. A full hollow ground (1/1) blade can keep a very sharp edge even after a great number of honing cycles because of its high degree of hollowness but it is more susceptible to [[Torsion (mechanics)|torsion]]al bending because it is thinner.<ref name="Knife centre"/> A partially hollow blade (1/2 or 1/4 for example) cannot sustain the same degree of sharpness for as long, because as the cutting edge erodes it can eventually reach the stabilising ridge faster, but it is more stable because it is less hollow.<ref name="Knife centre"/> In addition a flat ground blade, since by definition is not hollow (curved) at all, is the most stable of the blades but because its cross sectional area is the largest it also feels heavier than hollow ground and this can affect the feel of balance of the blade.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/><ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> |
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===Uses=== |
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The characteristics of each blade type determine the type of recommended uses for each blade as well as their maintenance routines. |
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Each type has its own strengths and weaknesses depending on the requirements of use. |
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Extra hollow blades such as singing blades are the thinnest and therefore they provide the best possible shave from all the other types.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> However they are also very flexible and therefore not suitable for tasks requiring increased pressure to the blade such as heavy [[beard]] growth etc. Care should also be taken when stropping so that the thin blade will not be overly [[Stress (physics)|stress]]ed, since it cannot withstand abuse as well as lower grades.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> Flat ground razors are very stable and as such they can handle tough shaving jobs since they do not easily deform under pressure and they can take rough handling such as heavy stropping and honing.<ref name="Classic shaving"/> |
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== Method of use == |
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[[Image:Razor and strop.JPG|thumb|300px|Razor and hanging strop. During stropping, the strop hangs from the ring and is pulled from the rectangular loop as tightly as possible. This strop is two sided with the leather side shown. The cloth is on the other side. The cloth is used for blade alignment and sharpening. The leather is for finishing]] |
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Despite the connotations of the term "cut-throat razor" a man is exceedingly unlikely to cut anything vital (like the [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]], [[carotid artery|carotid arteries]], or [[jugular vein]]s) while [[shaving]] himself with a straight razor. This is because shaving is done with the blade at approximately an angle of thirty degrees to the skin;<ref name="menessentials"/> a deep incision requires both the blade to be nearly perpendicular to the skin and the movement of the blade to be sideways.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> These circumstances are always avoided by the shaver, who always shaves in a direction perpendicular to the cutting edge of the blade.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> |
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To be most effective, a straight razor must be kept extremely sharp. The edge is delicate, and inexpert use may bend or fold over the razor's edge. To unfold and straighten the microscopic sharp edge, one must [[strop]] the blade on [[leather]] periodically.<ref name="executive-shaving"/> |
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[[Image:AtTheCuttingEdge.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A man shaving using a straight razor with a disposable injector blade system]] |
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To sharpen or finish the blade using a suspended strop the razor is pushed toward the suspension ring while both the back and the cutting edge lie flat on the strop and with the back of the blade as shown in the picture to the right. No pressure should be applied on the cutting edge. When reaching the end of the cloth or leather near the suspension ring, the razor is turned clockwise about its back until the cutting edge touches the strop. It is then pulled toward the rectangular handle of the strop with back and cutting edge flat on the strop as before. The blade should be moved in a slightly diagonal direction so to give every point of the blade a chance to touch the strop, without applying too much pressure. This process aligns the cutting edge properly with the back of the blade, avoiding "bumps" on the cutting edge. Care should be taken so that the blade is never rotated on the strop about the cutting edge because such use will damage the micro-alignment of the edge. |
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The blade must also be sharpened occasionally by honing with a razor [[hone]]. Strops prepared with [[paste]]s containing fine [[grit]] are also used for honing but are not recommended for the inexperienced user as they can easily rake off the edge if they apply the wrong amount or apply too much pressure.<ref name="premiumknives">[http://premiumknives.com/Old_Pages_Not_in_Use/Premium_Knives_help-Straight_Razor_Care.htm premiumknives]: "Some manufacturers do produce a professional abrasive in yellow, red, brown, black pastes/rouges or chalky white pastes, however these pastes can be difficult to use properly."</ref><ref name="executive-shaving Material"/> Some strops have a [[linen]] or [[canvas]] back embedded with a fine [[abrasive]] used to maintain a sharp edge before final polishing with the leather side. A face's worth of thick hair may require multiple stroppings for one shave, but a blade is usually honed only two or three times a year. Occasional regrinding by a professional may be required to restore a badly worn or damaged edge. |
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Experienced straight razor aficionados often advocate stropping after each shave and allowing the blade to recover its edge for several days before reuse.<ref name="DOVO FAQ">[http://web.archive.org/web/20070517114737/http://www.dovo.com/e/seiten/faq.html DOVO FAQ (Internet Archive)]: "DOVO straight razors are whetted in the factory for use (whetting on leather by hand). If you own a suitable strop, you should nevertheless take into account that the razor must first "rest" after use. After the razor has been carefully rinsed and dried, it should not be used again for at least 24 - 48 hours because the fine "fin" on the cutting edge straightens up again extremely slowly. If the razor is stropped too soon (or stropped incorrectly by moving it backwards and forwards without turning it over), the "fin" which is necessary for a close shave breaks off. Between six and fifteen shaves are possible without stropping in between", also: "People, who often use razors, know: the cutting edge is growing, meaning that the very fine burr on the cutting edge (which can be seen under the microscope) changes whenever the razor is used, but it finally goes back to its old position and will become very fine again. Nevertheless the burr will wear out after a certain period of time, and then the suitable razor strop should be bought."</ref> Historically this necessitated a collection of several razors sometimes sold in a sets for a week's use.<ref name="executive-shaving"/> Shaving [[soap]] in a cup is traditionally lathered and applied using a rotating in-and-out motion of a shaving brush, usually made of [[boar]] or [[badger]] [[bristles]].<ref name="Pennsylvania">[http://www.pacode.com/secure/data/049/chapter3/chap3toc.html STATE BOARD OF BARBER EXAMINERS of Pennsylvania]: "...An applicant shall furnish his own tools, such as mannequins, clippers, shears, combs, razors, hone, strop, shaving brush, hair cloth, tonics, creams, towels and spatula to perform the practical operations of barbering..."</ref> The shave is completed using as few strokes as possible, stropping sparingly if at all. A second shave with another razor in an alternate direction against the beard yields an extremely close shave, at the risk of producing [[ingrown hair]]s. Rinsing with cold water constricts minor abrasions or cuts, followed by patting dry (not rubbing) and an [[astringent]] or [[aftershave]] lotion. More serious nicks can be attended with direct pressure for perhaps a minute with a [[styptic pencil]]. A light steady touch is most effective at providing a close shave, preserving the edge and avoiding cuts. |
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In the heyday of straight razor shaving, wealthy users maintained a weekly "rotation" of seven razors to reduce wear on any one piece.<ref name="executive-shaving">[http://www.executive-shaving.co.uk/cut-throat-razor.php executive-shaving]: "The barber's better-off customers would have personal sets of seven cut throat razors, labelled 'Sunday' to 'Saturday'", and: "you should nevertheless take into account that the razor must first "rest" after use. After the razor has been carefully rinsed and dried, it should not be used again for at least 24 - 48 hours" and: "Between six and fifteen shaves are possible without stropping in between."</ref> Straight razors were often sold in special boxes of seven labeled for the days of the week. However, many users owned only one razor.<ref name="executive-shaving"/> |
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== Modern use == |
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[[Image:No name straight razor.JPG|right|thumb|280px|A straight razor with round point. The mirror finish 7/8” blade indicates a smooth [[chrome plated]] blade. The blade has no etching or markings of any kind, a plastic handle and the bottom pin is deformed, indicating an inexpensive razor. The blade is not normally chrome plated since this process adds no functionality to steel other than aesthetic]] |
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Straight razors are still manufactured. [[DOVO Steelware|DOVO]], of [[Solingen]], [[Germany]], and [[Thiers Issard]] of [[France]] are two of the most well-known European manufacturers. Feather Safety Razor Co. Ltd. of [[Osaka]], [[Japan]] makes a razor with the same form as a traditional straight, but featuring a disposable blade that can be installed through an injector-type system. |
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===Advantages=== |
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Modern straight razor users are known to favor them for a variety of reasons. Some are attracted to the [[nostalgia]] of using old and traditional methods of shaving. It is a [[Masculinity|masculine]] [[ritual]] comparable to [[pipe smoking]]. Others profess an interest in reducing the waste of disposable blades.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/><ref name="motherearthnews">[http://www.motherearthnews.com/DIY/1972-03-01/How-to-Use-a-Straight-Razor.aspx motherearthnews]: "..Shaving with a straight razor is a very simple idea that will preserve your face and, in some small measure, the environment, as well."</ref> |
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Still others agree that straight razors provide a superior shave through a larger blade and greater control of the blade including the blade angle. Straight razors cover a much greater area per shaving stroke because their cutting edge is much longer than any of the multiblade razors. |
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They also don't have to be rinsed as often because their blade acts like a scoop and carries the lather on it during multiple shaving strokes while the multiblade razors are not nearly as efficient at such a task because of their considerably smaller blade geometry.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/><ref name="Safety razor Website"/> |
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Straight razors are also much easier to clean and can handle tougher shaving tasks, such as longer facial hair, than modern multi-blade razors which tend to trap shaving debris between their tightly packed blades and are easily [[wikt:clog|clogged]] even with relatively short beard [[stubble]].<ref name="Weblog">[http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/hoax/weblog/comments/gillettes_5_blade_razor/ Weblog]: "I am skeptical of this product, though, because the Mach 3 does clog up badly and the blades of the new razor are allegedly even closer together."</ref><ref name="Safety razor Website">[http://www.halfbakery.com/idea/Scissoring_20Safety_20Razor Safety razor Website]: "..it's a disposable razor or a permanent razor with disposable razor cartridges, the problem is that the defoliated whiskers get caught between the two blades of a twin-bladed razor, and no amount of rinsing can get them all out."</ref> |
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In addition multi-edge razors can irritate the skin due to their multiblade action and this can lead to a condition known as [[Pseudofolliculitis barbae#Prevention and treatment|Pseudofolliculitis barbae]], [[colloquialism|colloquially]] known as ''razor bumps''. One of the recommended actions for those so affected is to switch to single blade use.<ref name="New Zealand Dermatological Society Incorporated">[http://dermnetnz.org/acne/pseudofolliculitis-barbae.html New Zealand Dermatological Society Incorporated]: "When you resume shaving, use a single blade razor. Double blade razors cut the hairs too short allowing them to grow in."</ref> |
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Others simply like the good results and the satisfaction of maintaining the blade themselves.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> Yet others cite aesthetic reasons in addition to the practical ones. A well made blade, in a nice handle with a well crafted etching and decorated shank, carries a sense of [[craftsmanship]] and [[ownership]] difficult to associate with a disposable blade cartridge.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> |
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Finally a well kept razor can last for decades,<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> and can become a family [[wikt:heirloom|heirloom]] that can be passed from father to son.<ref name="The-Straight-Razor-Shave"/> For all of these reasons, devotees of the straight razor make for an active market. |
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===Commercial use=== |
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[[Image:Ostrzenie brzytwy 0211.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Antique leather barber's strop. It is best for sturdy wedge type blades. Hollow ground blades should be stropped on a hanging strop, since it provides a more flexible support for the blade.<ref name="Dovo Solingen"/>]] |
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Some areas require barbers who provide straight-razor shaving to use a version that employs a disposable blade system. Still other jurisdictions ban the use of all straight razors and barbers use modern disposable blade razors instead. In places such as [[New Zealand]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Denver]], [[Boston]], [[Texas]] and [[San Diego]], however, the use of straight razors is legal.<ref name="Pennsylvania"/><ref name="sandiego">[http://docs.sandiego.gov/municode/MuniCodeChapter04/Ch04Art02Division02.pdf San Diego Health Regulations]: "RAZOR DISINFECTING. The blade of a razor, which has been dropped during the operation of shaving a customer, shall be immersed in a disinfecting solution, approved by the Director of Public Health, and then wiped, before being again applied to the face of the customer..."</ref><ref name="SAVING FACE ">[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE7DE1430F935A2575AC0A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print New York Times SAVING FACE]: "Denver, this four-chair emporium gives the full, old-fashioned shave with a straight razor for $10 ..." also: "Boston: For $15, a man can get an old-fashioned shave with a straight-edged razor, including cold towels as well as hot, plus cologne. Appointments are preferred" September 16, 1990</ref><ref name="TEXAS">[http://www.license.state.tx.us/barbers/forms/003bar.pdf TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF LICENSING AND REGULATION]: "...to be cleaned and disinfected include but are not limited to combs and picks, haircutting shears, thinning shears/texturizers, razors, edgers, guards, clippers, and perm rods..."</ref><ref name="New Zealand">[http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/nqfdocs/units/pdf/10647.pdf Government of New Zealand]: BARBERING Wet shave facial hair using a cutthroat razor "...In this unit standard all work must comply with legislative requirements and ensure optimum hair condition and maximum client comfort at all times..."</ref> |
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== Collecting == |
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There is also an active market for antique straight razors. Antique razors are used for shaving, or as collectible [[memorabilia]] depending on the condition of the razor and the individual preferences of the collector. |
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== Use as a weapon == |
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The typical straight razor's extreme sharpness, portability, and ease of concealment has led to it being used as a [[weapon]]. The legality of its use as a weapon may vary by jurisdiction. Its use or [[wikt:misuse|misuse]] as a weapon, as is the case with any sharp object such as a [[knife]], [[scissors]], broken [[glass]] etc., can cause [[disfigurement]] or [[death]]. |
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== Straight razors in film and culture== |
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{{Trivia|date=October 2008}} |
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Straight razors have featured in some films as both weapons and [[torture]] implements and are also the subject of stories and [[gore|gory]] descriptions in [[popular culture]]. |
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*Stories circulate as to how gangster [[Al Capone]] got his nickname Scarface: attributing it to an irate barber, who allegedly cut him with a razor; another story says he fared poorly in a knife-fight. |
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*In the film [[Running Scared (2006 film)|Running Scared]], Tommy "Tombs" Perello played by [[Johnny Messner]] uses a straight razor to slice the back of a dirty cops ankle while on the floor during a police bust. |
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*In the film ''[[Haute Tension]]'', a womans throat is cut with a straight razor by a psychopath that breaks into her home. |
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*It is the weapon most used by the fictional barber, [[Sweeney Todd]], who has appeared in numerous incarnations, including [[Sweeney Todd, the Demon Barber of Fleet Street|a Broadway musical]] by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and [[Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007 film)|a Tim Burton film]] based on the musical. |
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*In the film ''[[The Patriot (2000 film)|The Patriot]]'', Col. William Travington ([[Jason Isaacs]]) shaves with one in a river. |
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*A certain type of [[face|facial]] [[injury]] has been described in [[popular culture]] and the [[Organized crime|underworld]] by [[wikt:sarcastic|sarcastic]] [[nickname]]s such as the [[Chelsea smile]] or [[Glasgow smile]] referring to a longitudinal trauma along the direction of the [[lip]] to [[ear]] [[line|axis]]. |
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*Another similar kind of disfigurement caused by the [[illegal]] use of knives or razors is [[sarcasm|sarcastically]] described in pop-culture as the "Sicilian Necktie" or "[[Colombian necktie]]". |
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*Annabelle uses a straight razor as a tooland a weapon in the film ''[[Dead Birds (2004)|Dead Birds]]'' |
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*[[Terry Southern]] wrote a short story called ''Razor Fight'' about a doubly-fatal conflict between two men in a bar. It was first published in ''Nugget'' magazine and later included in the collection ''[[Red-Dirt Marijuana and Other Tastes]]'' (1967). |
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*In the book/film ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'', the protagonist, Alex, fights using a straight razor (referred to as his "[[Nadsat|britva]]"). |
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*In [[Quentin Tarantino]]'s film ''[[Reservoir Dogs]]'', [[Michael Madsen]]'s character, [[Vic Vega|Mr. Blonde]] slices off the ear (off-camera) of kidnapped [[LAPD]] Officer Marvin Nash in one of the film's most memorable scenes. |
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*In the film ''[[The Matrix Reloaded]]'', [[Twins (The Matrix)|The Twins]] use straight razors as weapons. |
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*In the film ''[[Mississippi Burning]]'', Gene hackman' character uses a straight razor to shave, threaten, and purposefully nick the chin of a ''[[Ku Klux Klan]]'' member. |
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*A memorable scene from the film [[Bram Stoker's Dracula]] depicts Dracula licking blood from a straight razor, which he then uses in a very tense scene to shave Jonathan Harker. He also has a very telling response when he sees Harker's cross in the reflection of the razor. |
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*In [[Rob Zombie]]'s film, [[House of 1000 Corpses]], a young traveller is tortured by [[Otis Driftwood]] and [[Baby Firefly]], using a straight to lacerate his face before turning him into 'Fishboy'. |
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*In the film ''[[Dolemite]]'', one of his enemies after being shot, begs for help. One of Dolemite's kung-fu trained prostitutes helps him by cutting his throat with a straight razor. |
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*In the film ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'', [[Toon Patrol|Psycho the Weasel]], one of the film's minor villains, utilized his cartoon straight razor as his weapon of choice, and held onto it quite tenaciously until his final scene in the movie. |
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*In the television show ''[[Deadwood]],'' the character [[Francis Wolcott]] uses a straight razor to cut the throats of prostitutes who offend him. Later, while shaving, he debates using the weapon on himself. |
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*It is used as a primary weapon by the fictional character George Stark in ''[[The Dark Half]]''. |
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*Also used in ''[[Dressed to Kill (1980 film)|Dressed to Kill]]'' by an imposing blonde woman in dark sunglasses who stalks her victims. |
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*In both the Forest Kingdom and Nightside series by author [[Simon R. Green]] a recurring character is Razor Eddie, known by the title Punk God of the Straight Razor. |
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* Also used in another [[Quentin Tarantino|Tarantino]] film, ''[[Kill Bill#Volume 2|Kill Bill Vol 2]]''. when "The Bride" ([[Uma Thurman]]) is buried alive, she used a straight razor to cut the rope from her hands. |
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*In the film ''[[Murder in the First]]'', [[Gary Oldman]] slices [[Kevin Bacon]]'s Achilles tendon with a straight razor. |
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*In the film ''[[Angel Heart]]'', the persistent private detective, Harry Angel, is attacked and badly cut on his hand, by guitar player Toots Sweet with a straight razor which Angel subsequently uses to dispatch his assailant. |
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*In [[Monty Python's The Meaning of Life]], The British officer played by [[John Cleese]] shaves himself with straight razor while a battle of the [[Zulu war]] takes place all around him. He stays cool and calm and doesn't cut himself, when a spear breaks his mirror, while he is holding the razor with the edge on his neck. He turns back angrily to see who has thrown the spear and finishes shaving by using a piece of the broken mirror. |
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*In the film ''[[Pan's Labyrinth]]'', Captain Vidal shaves with a straight razor, and then runs the blade across the throat of his reflection in the mirror. |
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*In the opening scene of [[David Cronenberg]]'s film ''[[Eastern Promises]]'' a [[Russia]]n [[mobster]] is assassinated by the barber's accomplice using a straight razor.<ref name="Mirror UK">[http://www.mirror.co.uk/showbiz/entertainment/movies/2007/10/26/eastern-promises-89520-20001584/ Mirror UK] Quote: "... unfortunates being dispatched with razor blades and an exceptionally-violent fight in a sauna, ..."</ref> A similar attempt repeats in the scene outside the soccer match of the same film.<ref name="Mirror UK"/> |
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*In [[The Simpsons]], [[Homer Simpson]] is forced to live a life in a house that, only allowed the use of items in the 1800. This forced Homer to shave with a straight razor, and in that same scene, blood pours out from the area around his mouth. |
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* Used by Italian director [[Dario Argento]] in his films ''[[L'uccello dalle piume di cristallo|The Bird with the Crystal Plumage]]'' and in a scene in ''[[Suspiria]]''. |
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* In Dali and Buuel's surrealist film Un Chien Andaloua, a woman's eyeball is graphically slashed with a razor in the opening scene. |
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* In several [[Three Stooges]] shorts, the boys predominantly used a straight razor in shaving scenes. |
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* Billy-Ray Sanguine from the [[Skulduggery Pleasant]] series uses a straight razor as his weapon of choice. Quite fond of the blade, it's magical properties mean that any cuts it causes will never heal. |
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* In [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]'s [[Last Tango in Paris]], a scene finds [[Marlon Brando]] shaving in front of a mirror while engaging in a dialogue with a nude [[Maria Schneider]]. |
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* In the video game [[Sonic and the Secret Rings]], the main villain [[Erazor Djin]] wields a weapon resembling a giant straight razor. |
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* The 1940 film "[[The Great Dictator]]" features [[Charlie Chaplin]] (as the barber) who shaves a customer with a straight razor accompanied by the [[Hungarian Dance No. 5]]<ref name="Saving scene from 'The great Dictator' on YouTube">[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J7_0rUZyuos YouTube - Charlie Chaplin from The Great Dictator<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> |
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* In the 1947 film, Dark Passage. Plastic Surgeon,Dr. Walter Coley (Houseley Stevenson), tests the sharpness of his staight razor while telling Vincent Parry (Humphrey Bogart), that if he didn't like someone he could make them look like a bulldog or a monkey. |
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*[[Joe R. Lansdale]]'s [[Lords of the Razor|God of the Razor]] is sometimes shown wielding a giant straight razor. |
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==Citations and notes== |
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{{reflist|2}} |
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==See also== |
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*[[Burma-Shave]] |
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*[[Rolls Razor]] |
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*[http://www.en.nassrasur.com/razorcentral/index.html Principles and practice of straight razor care] |
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[[Category:Hygiene]] |
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[[Category:Shaving]] |
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[[de:Rasiermesser]] |
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[[fr:Coupe-choux]] |
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[[lt:Skustuvas]] |
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[[pl:Brzytwa]] |
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[[pt:Navalha]] |
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[[fi:Partaveitsi]] |
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[[sv:Rakkniv]] |
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Revision as of 04:55, 11 October 2008
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Second Republic
Main article Nigerian Second Republic
A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution, which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political activity was lifted. In 1979, five political parties competed in a series of elections in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. Obasanjo peacefully transferred power to Shagari, becoming the first head of state in Nigerian history to willingly step down. All five parties won representation in the National Assembly. In August 1983 Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.[1]
Overthrow
On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member General Ibrahim Babangida in August 1985. Babangida cited the misuse of power, violations of human rights by key officers of the SMC, and the government's failure to deal with the country's deepening economic crisis as justifications for the takeover. During his first days in office President Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency plan he announced pay cuts for the military, police, civil servants and the private sector. President Babangida demonstrated his intent to encourage public participation in decisionmaking by opening a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures. The public response convinced Babangida of intense opposition to an economic recovery package dependent on an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan.
The Abortive Third Republic
Main article Nigerian Third Republic
President Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990 which was later extended until January 1993. In early 1989 a constituent assembly completed a constitution and in the spring of 1989 political activity was again permitted. In October 1989 the government established two parties, the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic (SDP) - other parties were not allowed to register.
In April 1990 mid-level officers attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the government and 69 accused plotters were executed after secret trials before military tribunals. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level. Despite low turnout there was no violence and both parties demonstrated strength in all regions of the country, with the SDP winning control of a majority of local government councils.
In December 1991 state legislative elections were held and Babangida decreed that previously banned politicians could contest in primaries scheduled for August. These were canceled due to fraud and subsequent primaries scheduled for September also were canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from standing for president once a new election format was selected. The presidential election was finally held on June 12, 1993 with the inauguration of the new president scheduled to take place August 27, 1993, the eighth anniversary of President's Babangida coming to power.
In the historic June 12, 1993 presidential elections, which most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola won a decisive victory. However, on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an interim government on August 27, 1993. He later attempted to renege this decision, but without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until elections scheduled for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension.
Sani Abacha
With the country sliding into chaos Defense Minister Sani Abacha assumed power and forced Shonekan's resignation on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Although promising restoration of civilian rule he refused to announce a transitional timetable until 1995. Following the annulment of the June 12 election the United States and others imposed sanctions on Nigeria including travel restrictions on government officials and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts.
Although Abacha was initially welcomed by many Nigerians disenchantment grew rapidly. Opposition leaders formed the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO), which campaigned to reconvene the Senate and other disbanded democratic institutions. On June 11, 1994 Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding until his arrest on June 23. In response petroleum workers called a strike demanding that Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike, bringing economic life around Lagos and the southwest to a standstill. After calling off a threatened strike in July the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) reconsidered a general strike in August after the government imposed conditions on Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994 the government dismissed the leadership of the NLC and the petroleum unions, placed the unions under appointed administrators, and arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders.
The government alleged in early 1995 that military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot. Security officers rounded up the accused, including former Head of State Obasanjo and his deputy, retired General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal most of the accused were convicted and several death sentences were handed down. In 1994 the government set up the Ogoni Civil Disturbances Special Tribunal to try Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and others for their alleged roles in the killings of four Ogoni politicians. The tribunal sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death and they were executed on November 10, 1995.
On October 1, 1995 Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Only five political parties were approved by the regime and voter turnout for local elections in December 1997 was under 10%. On December 21, 1997 the government arrested General Oladipo Diya, ten officers, and eight civilians on charges of coup plotting. The accused were tried before a military tribunal in which Diya and eight others were sentenced to death. Abacha enforced authority through the federal security system which is accused of numerous human rights abuses, including infringements on freedom of speech, assembly, association, travel, and violence against women. After assuming power in June 1998 the Abubakar government took steps toward restoring worker rights and freedom of association for trade unions, which had deteriorated seriously under Abacha.
Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule
Main article Nigerian Fourth Republic
Abacha died of heart failure on June 8, 1998 and was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar. The military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) under Abubakar commuted the sentences of those accused in the alleged coup during the Abacha regime and released almost all known civilian political detainees. Pending the promulgation of the constitution written in 1995, the government observed some provisions of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution was not implemented. The judiciary system continued to be hampered by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an attempt to alleviate such problems Abubakar's government implemented a civil service pay raise and other reforms.
In August 1998 Abubakar appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. The NEC successfully held elections on December 5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999, respectively. For local elections nine parties were granted provisional registration with three fulfilling the requirements to contest the following elections. These parties were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All People's Party (APP), and the predominantly Yoruba Alliance for Democracy (AD). Former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. The PRC promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended 1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly consisting of a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate.
References
- ^ Falola, Toyin, and Julius Omozuanvbo Ihonvbere. The Rise and Fall of Nigeria's Second Republic, 1979-1983. London: Zed Books, 1985