First Nations in Canada

First Nations is a Canadian term of ethnicity which refers to the aboriginal peoples located in what is now Canada, and their descendants who are neither Inuit nor Métis. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples are known as Aboriginal peoples, First peoples, or Indigenous peoples, bands, or nations. A national representative body of the First Nations in Canada is the Assembly of First Nations.

First Nations people in Canada have been referred to as Indians, Native-Canadians, Aboriginal peoples, and Amerindians, Autochtones (a term used by French-Canadians). They are known officially by the Government of Canada as registered Indians if they are entitled to benefits under the Indian Act. The use of the word Native-Americans is not common in Canada, as "Native-Americans" refers to the Natives peoples of the United States specificially.

Americans have now started to use the Canadian term "First Nations" in the United States; although the most common preference in the United States is still to use the increasingly archaic word "Indians" or "Native-Americans" to describe Indian peoples in the United States. Europeans too, are still in the habit of using this out-dated word.

Controversial terminology

"First Nation" is a legally undefined term that came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term "Indian band". Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s. A band is defined as "a body of Indians for whose collective use and benefit lands have been set apart or money is held by the Canadian Crown, or declared to be a band for the purposes of the Indian Act" . There are currently over 600 First Nations governments or bands in Canada, roughly half of which are located in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia.

There is some controversy over the use of the term "First Nations" to either self-describe Indigenous peoples within Canada, or for non-indigenous peoples to refer to Indigenous peoples in this fashion. Under international law covenants, "First Nations" per se have no standing, as "indigenous peoples" or "nations" do.

The Canadian government, many Indigenous peoples within Canada, and many non-indigenous people use the term First Nations out of respect for the right of Indigenous people to describe themselves.

In general, Indigenous peoples within Canada who identify as First Nations do not believe in the concept of sovereignty of Indigenous peoples as nation-states, while those who do not use the term, or insist upon the term "Indigenous peoples", are sovereignists. There are also Indigenous people in Canada who use the term "First Nation" for any tribal and or nomadic ethnic group deprived of self-determination as a political recognition of colonization. These groups work internationally on minority rights and self-determination.

Indian reserves, established in Canadian law by treaties such as Treaty 7, are the contemporary lands of First Nations. Some reserves are located within a city, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, as some First Nations were ceded multiple reserves by treaty.

Other terms include "Status Indian" and "Non-Status Indian", the latter designating a member of a First Nation who is not entitled to benefits. The use of the word "Indian" in day-to-day language is erratic in Canada, with some seeing the term as offensive while others prefer it to terminology such as "Aboriginal person" (or people). All members of First Nations who are entitled to benefits are entered in the Indian Register, which serves as the official record of members of First Nations. Administration of the Indian Act and Indian Register is carried out by the federal government's Department of Indian and Northern Affairs.

A First Nations art display at Vancouver International Airport.

Under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the document many people refer to as the "Indian Magna Carta", the Crown refers to the Indigenous people in British territory as "Tribes or Nations".

History

Interaction with European-Canadians

Aboriginal peoples in Canada have interacted with Europeans as far back as 1000 AD (see History of Canada, European Contact), but prolonged contact came once permanent European settlements were established.

As far back as the late 18th century, First Nations have believed they have been targeted for assimilation into what they call European/Canadian culture. These attempts reached a climax with the establishment of the Canadian residential school system, the prohibition of Indigenous cultural practices, and the Indian Acts of the late 19th and early 20th century.

In 1885, some First Nations in (modern day) Western Canada became involved in the North-West Rebellion as part of their resistance to Canadian westward expansion. In much of Canada, First Nations became subject to the controversial Numbered Treaties, while in other areas like British Columbia, treaties are still being negotiated to this day.

Late 20th century

1969 White Paper

In his 1969 White Paper, Minister of Indian Affairs, the Hon. Jean Chrétien, proposed the abolition of the Indian Act of Canada, the rejection of Aboriginal land claims, and the assimilation of First Nations people into the Canadian population with the status of "other ethnic minorities" rather than a distinct group.

A response by Harold Cardinal and the Indian Chiefs of Alberta (entitled "Citizens Plus" but commonly known as the "Red Paper") explained the widespread opposition to Chrétien's proposal from Status Indians in Canada. Prime Minister Trudeau and the Liberals began to back away from the 1969 White Paper, particularly after the Calder case decision in 1973.

The Erasmus-Dussault commission

In 1991, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney created the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. Their report was issued in 1996; its most revolutionary proposal was the creation of a government for (and by) the First Nations that would be fully responsible within its own jurisdiction, and with which the federal government would speak on a "Nation-to-Nation" basis. This proposal offered a far different way of doing politics than the traditional policy of assigning all First Nations matters under the jurisdiction of the Indian and Northern Affairs, managed by one minister of the federal cabinet. The report also recommended providing the governments of the First Nations with up to CAD$2 billion every year until 2010, in order to reduce the socioeconomic gap between the First Nations and the rest of the Canadian citizenry. The money would represent an increase of at least 50% to the budget of Indian and Northern Affairs. Finally, the report insisted on the importance of First Nations leaders to actively think of ways to cope with the challenging issues their people were facing, so the First Nations could take their destiny into their own hands.

The federal government, then headed by Jean Chrétien, responded to the report a year later by officially presenting its apologies for the forced acculturation the federal government had imposed on Canada's native peoples, and by offering an "initial" provision of $350 million.

In the spirit advocated by the Eramus-Dussault commission, several tripartite (federal, provincial, and First Nations) accords have been signed since the report was issued. Several political crises between different provincial governments and different bands of the First Nations also occurred in the late 20th century, notably:

• Oka Crisis
• Ipperwash Crisis
• Burnt Church Crisis
• Gustafsen Lake Standoff

Early 21st century

In 2001, the Quebec government, the federal government and the Cree Nation signed "La Paix des Braves" (The Peace of the Braves, a reference to the 1701 peace treaty between the French and the Iroquois League). The agreement would allow Hydro-Québec to exploit the province's hydroelectric resources in exchange for an allocation of $3.5 billion to be given to the government of the Cree Nation. Later, the Inuit nation of Quebec joined in the agreement.

In 2005, the leaders of the First Nations, various provincial governments and the federal government signed the Kelowna Accord, which would have yielded $5 billion for 5 years, but the newly-elected government of Stephen Harper refused to sign the accord.

At present, many First Nations, along with their peers the Métis and the Inuit, claim to receive inadequate funding for education, and allege their rights have been overlooked in many instances. Recently James K. Bartleman, Lieutenant Governor of Ontario, listed the encouragement of indigenous young people as one of his key priorities. During his term that began in 2002, he has launched several initiatives to promote literacy and bridge building. Bartleman himself is the first aboriginal person to hold the Lieutenant Governor's position in Ontario.

As of 2006, over 75 First Nations communities exist in boil-water advisory conditions ^[1]. In late 2005, the drinking water crisis of the Kashechewan First Nation received national media attention when E. coli was discovered in their water supply system, following two years of living under a boil-water advisory.

• Caledonia land dispute
• Kelowna Accord

Diversity

Main article: List of First Nations peoples

There are many distinct First Nations cultures in Canada, originating from all regions of the country.

Culture areas

Native peoples can be grouped into cultural areas based on their ancestors’ primary lifeway, or occupation, at the time of European contact. These culture areas correspond closely with physical and biological regions of Canada.

In the Pacific Coast the cultures were centred around ocean and river fishing; in the interior, hunting and gathering and river fishing. In both of these areas the salmon was of chief importance. For the people of the plains, bison hunting was the primary activity. In the subartic forest, other species such as the moose were more important. For peoples near the Great Lakes and St. Laurence river, shifting agriculture was practised, including the raising of maize, beans, and squash.

Today, First Nations people work in a variety of occupations and many also live outside their ancestor's homes. Nevertheless, the traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on Native culture, from spirituality to political attitudes.

Language diversity

At European contact, First Nations peoples spoke a wide variety of languages grouped into several language families. Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture. For example, Cree language speakers lived both in the forests and on the prairies. Similarly, peoples with related languages were not always allies.

While a number of First Nation languages are still found in Canada, many of them are presently endangered, with decreasing numbers of speakers.

Political organization

At contact, First Nations organization ranged in size from band societies a few people, to multi-nation confederacies like the Iroquois.

Today's political organizations are largely the byproduct of interaction with European-style methods of government. As well, First Nations political organizations are spread throughout Canada, and vary in political standing, viewpoints, and reasons for forming. Most First Nations political organizations arise from the need to be united and to have their opinions heard. First Nations negotiate with the Canadian Government through Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in all affairs concerning land, entitlement, and rights.

See also

• Indigenous peoples of the Americas
• Native Americans in the United States
• List of Aboriginal communities in Canada
• List of place names in Canada of Aboriginal origin
• Aboriginal Police in Canada

External links

• Naming guidelines of the Government of Canada's Department of Indian and Northern Affairs
• First Nation Profiles from the Government of Canada's Department of Indian and Northern Affairs
• Union of BC Indian Chiefs
• First Nations Studies Essays by Elmer G. Wiens
• Maple Leaf Web: Native Social Issues in Canada
• First Nations Artifacts
• Museum of Anthropology at UBC
• The Plains Cree: A Historical and Ethnographic Study
• CBC Digital Archives - The Battle for Aboriginal Treaty Rights
• A History of Aboriginal Treaties and Relations in Canada
• First Nations - Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia
• First Nations Seeker