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{{unref|article|date=July 2008}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Short description|Approaches applied to learning}}
[[Image:Study-Pearce-Highsmith-detail-1.jpeg|thumb|300px|Detail from ''Study'', [[Charles Sprague Pearce]] (1896), Library of Congress [[Thomas Jefferson Building]], Washington, D.C.]]
[[File:Truckee Meadows Community College (10075995964).jpg|300px|thumb|A student studying outdoors]]
'''Study skills''' are strategies and methods of purposeful [[learning]], usually centered around [[reading (activity)|reading]] and [[writing]]. Effective study skills are considered essential for [[student]]s to acquire good grades in school, and are useful in general to improve learning throughout one's life, in support of career and other interests.
'''Study skills''' or '''study strategies''' are approaches applied to [[learning]]. Study skills are an array of skills which tackle the process of organizing and taking in new [[information]], retaining information, or dealing with [[exam|assessment]]s. They are discrete techniques that can be learned, usually in a short time, and applied to all or most fields of study. More broadly, any skill which boosts a person's ability to study, retain and recall information which assists in and passing exams can be termed a study skill, and this could include [[time management]] and motivational techniques.


Some examples are [[mnemonic]]s, which aid the retention of lists of information; effective reading; concentration techniques;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bremer|first1=Rod|title=The Manual: A Guide to the Ultimate Study Method|date=20 January 2016|publisher=Fons Sapientiae Publishing|isbn=978-0993496424|edition=Second}}</ref> and efficient note taking.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/site/colleges/seh/freshinfo/vs/StudySkills2008b.pdf |title=Study Skills |date=July 2008 |website=weblearn.ox.ac.uk |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319212840/http://weblearn.ox.ac.uk/site/colleges/seh/freshinfo/vs/StudySkills2008b.pdf |archive-date=March 19, 2009}}</ref>
In the [[United Kingdom]], studying a subject at university may sometimes be referred to as ''[[Reading (for degree)|reading]]'' that subject. For example, ''"I am reading [[Physics]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]"''.


Due to the generic nature of study skills, they must, therefore, be distinguished from strategies that are specific to a particular field of study (e.g. music or technology), and from abilities inherent in the student, such as aspects of intelligence or [[learning styles]]. It is crucial in this, however, for students to gain initial insight into their habitual approaches to study, so they may better understand the dynamics and personal resistances to learning new techniques.<ref>{{cite book|author=Creme, P. & Lea, M.R.|year=1997|title= Writing at University: A Guide for Students|location= Buckingham, UK|publisher= Open University Press}}</ref>
== Best types of studying ==


== Historical context ==
Some key '''study skills''' include:


Study skills are generally critical to success in school,<ref name="eric1">{{cite journal|url=http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ667615&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ667615|title=Contributions of Study Skills to Academic Competence.|journal=School Psychology Review|issn=0279-6015|publisher=Educational Resources Information Center|access-date=2009-02-01}}</ref> considered essential for acquiring good grades, and useful for [[Lifelong learning|learning throughout one's life]]. While often left up to the student and their support network, study skills are increasingly taught at the [[high school]] and [[university]] level.
* Removing distractions and improving concentration
* Maintaining a balance between [[homework]] and other activities
* [[Stress management|Reducing stress]], such as that caused by [[test anxiety]]
* Strategies for writing [[essay]]s
* [[Speed reading]]
* [[Notetaking]]
* Subject-specific study strategies
* Preparing for exams
<!--== Removing distractions and improving concentration ==-->
*Time Management
*Self Motivation


The term ''study skills'' is used for general approaches to learning, skills for specific courses of study. There are many theoretical works on the subject, including a vast number of popular books and websites. Manuals for students have been published since the 1940s.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Robnolt|first1=Valerie J.|title=Study Skills in the Digital Age|date=2014|work=Academic Knowledge Construction and Multimodal Curriculum Development|pages=256–264|publisher=IGI Global|isbn=978-1-4666-4797-8|last2=Rhodes|first2=Joan A.|doi=10.4018/978-1-4666-4797-8.ch016}}</ref>
== Maintaining a balance between studying and other activities ==
=== Study sessions ===
{{articleissues|section=y|essay=July 2008|howto=July 2008}}
Many students find it hard to start working or work for too long when they do. If one finds himself [[Procrastination|avoiding starting work or seemingly finding ways out of studying]] then he should try to start studying for short periods of 10-15 minutes on a regular basis. This, if done properly, can help ease one into interrupting your normal daily routine enough to actually get some work done. When one finds that one can sit and concentrate (which are skills that need to be warmed up by this process as well) for longer periods then changing to a full study routine is possible.


In the 1950s and 1960s, college instructors in the fields of psychology and the study of education used to research, theory, and experience with their own students in writing manuals.<ref>, Preston, Rah (1959). ''Teaching Study Habits and Skills'', Rinehart. Original from the University of Maryland digitized August 7, 2006.</ref><ref>Kranyik, Robert and Shankman, Florence V. (1963). ''How to Teach Study Skills'', Teacher’s Practical Press.</ref> Marvin Cohn based the advice for parents in his 1978 book ''Helping Your Teen-Age Student'' on his experience as a researcher and head of a university reading clinic that tutored teenagers and young adults.<ref>Cohn, Marvin (1979). ''Helping Your Teenage Student: What Parents Can Do to Improve Reading and Study Skills'', Dutton, {{ISBN|978-0-525-93065-5}}.</ref> In 1986, when ''Dr. Gary Gruber’s Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids'' was first published, the author had written 22 books on taking standardized tests. A work in two volumes, one for upper elementary grades and the other for middle school, the ''Guide'' has methods for taking tests and completing schoolwork.<ref>Gruber, Gary (1986). ''Dr. Gary Gruber’s Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids, Grades 3, 4, 5'', Quill, {{ISBN|978-0-688-06350-4}}.</ref><ref>Gruber, Gary (1986). ''Dr. Gary Gruber’s Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids, Grades 6, 7, 8, 9'', Quill, {{ISBN|978-0-688-06351-1}}.</ref>
If one finds that one studies for too long then it can seem much more of a chore than it really has to be. Even students who really enjoy their subject can end up resenting the amount of work they have to do if they fall into ineffective study patterns. If this happens one may begin to fall into the avoiding-starting-to-study pattern.


== Types ==
A realistic study pattern (although it is better to find your own personal pattern) is that of a designated 2 hour session with a 5 minute break every half hour. During the 5 minutes be mindful to get away from the studying and do something that is both relaxing and different e.g. get a breath of fresh air or a drink of water. Make sure that you end the 2 hour session whether you have completed what you have been studying or not and commit to return to that point in the next 2 hour session.


=== Rehearsal and rote learning ===
In between sessions try to do something you enjoy or something new and refreshing. It is sometimes easy to view times of study as mundane but they can also be times where you try new experiences and be creative. At first it may seem a little hard to think of things that you don't normally do and might enjoy and it is different for everyone. Some examples may include going to the park, watching a DVD, painting a picture, going to a museum, meeting friends (but preferably not talking about study), learning a musical instrument, watching a sporting event that you do not normally attend, reading a novel, playing a new sport, etc... It is important to attempt to change a revision period to a time where you are choosing to experience new things as well as choosing to learn new things, which is a much more positive way to approach studying
{{Main|Rote learning}}
Memorization is the process of committing something to memory, often by rote.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hilgard|first1=E. R.|last2=Irvine|first2=R. P.|last3=Whipple|first3=J. E.|date=1953|title= Rote memorization, understanding, and transfer: an extension of Katona's card-trick experiments.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=46|issue=4|pages=288–292|doi=10.1037/h0062072|pmid=13109128}}</ref> The act of memorization is often a deliberate mental process undertaken in order to store information in one's memory for later recall. This information can be experiences, names, appointments, addresses, telephone numbers, lists, stories, poems, pictures, maps, diagrams, facts, music or other visual, auditory, or tactical information. Memorization may also refer to the process of storing particular data into the memory of a device. One of the most basic approaches to learning any information is simply to repeat it by rote. Typically this will include reading over notes or a textbook and re-writing notes.


The weakness of rote learning is that it implies a passive reading and listening style. Educators such as [[John Dewey]] have argued that students need to learn [[critical thinking]] – questioning and weighing up evidence as they learn. This can be done during lectures or when reading books.
<!--
== Reducing stress ==
{{main|Stress management}}


== Strategies for writing essays ==
=== Reading and listening ===
<!-- [[PQRST (study skill)]] links here! -->
{{main|Essay}}


A method that is useful during the first interaction with the subject of study is '''REAP method'''. This method helps students to improve their understanding of the text and bridge the idea with that of the author's. REAP is an acronym for '''R'''ead, '''E'''ncode, '''A'''nnotate and '''P'''onder.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sheryn Spencer-Waterman|title=Handbook on Differentiated Instruction for Middle & High Schools|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSIEAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|date=9 January 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-93008-2|page=61}}</ref>
== Speed reading ==
{{main|Speed reading}}


#'''Read''': Reading a section to discern the idea.
== Notetaking ==
#'''Encode''': Paraphrasing the idea from the author's perspective to the student's own words.
{{main|Notetaking}}
#'''Annotate''': Annotating the section with critical understanding and other relevant notes.
#'''Ponder''': To ponder about what they read through thinking, discussing with others and reading related materials. Thus it allows the possibility of elaboration and fulfillment of [[zone of proximal development]].


Annotating and Encoding helps reprocess content into concise and coherent knowledge which adds to a meaningful symbolic fund of knowledge. Precise annotation, Organizing question annotation, Intentional annotation, and Probe annotation are some of the annotation methods used.
== Subject-specific study strategies ==
-->


[[File:Studying.jpg|thumb|right|A student using the PQRST method]]
== Preparing for exams ==


A method used to focus on key information when studying from books uncritically is the '''PQRST method'''.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Chennai/Students_tackle_stress_as_board_exams_draw/articleshow/3949131.cms | work=The Times Of India | first1=Karthika | last1=Gopalakrishnan | title=Students tackle stress as board exams draw | date=2009-01-08}}</ref> This method prioritizes the information in a way that relates directly to how they will be asked to use that information in an exam. PQRST is an acronym for '''P'''review, '''Q'''uestion, '''R'''ead, '''S'''ummary, '''T'''est.<ref name="stangl1">{{cite web|url=http://arbeitsblaetter.stangl-taller.at/LERNTECHNIK/PQRST.shtml|title=The PQRST Method of Studying|last=Stangl|first=Werner|publisher=stangl-taller.at}} {{cite book|author1=Robinson, Francis Pleasant|year=1970|title= Effective study|location=New York|publisher= Harper & Row}}</ref>
Preparing for an exam requires a good understanding of what is expected of you, a rigid [[work-life balance]] than maximizes your energy and strengths, a certain amount of self discipline, and a set of study skills that are effective, varied, and interesting.


#'''Preview:''' The student looks at the topic to be learned by glancing over the major headings or the points in the syllabus.
It is a basic premise that the more that you use information (read it, speak about it, draw it, write it, use it etc...) the more you remember and the longer you will remember it.
#'''Question:''' The student formulates questions to be answered following a thorough examination of the topic(s).
#'''Read:''' The student reads through the related material, focusing on the information that best relates to the questions formulated earlier.
#'''Summary:''' The student summarizes the topic, bringing his or her own understanding of the process. This may include written notes, spider diagrams, flow diagrams, labeled diagrams, [[mnemonics]], or even voice recordings.
#'''Test:''' The student answers the questions drafted earlier, avoiding adding any questions that might distract or change the subject.


There are a variety of studies from different colleges nationwide that show peer-communication can help increase better study habits tremendously. One study shows that an average of 73% score increase was recorded by those who were enrolled in the classes surveyed.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}
===The PQRST Method===


In order to make reading or reviewing material more engaging and active, learners can create cues that will stimulate recall later on. A cue can be a word, short phrase, or song that helps the learner access a memory that was encoded intentionally with this prompt in mind. The use of cues to aid memory has been popular for many years, however, research suggests that adopting cues made by others is not as effective as cues that learners create themselves.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}
[[Image:Girl studies.jpg|thumb|px200|right|An [[LSE]] student studies for her final exams.]]


Self-testing is another effective practice, when preparing for exams or other standardized memory recall situations. Many students prepare for exams by simply rereading textbook passages or materials. However, it's likely that this can create a false sense of understanding because of the increased familiarity that students have with passages that they have reviewed recently or frequently. Instead, in 2006, Roediger and Karpicke studied eighth-grade students’ performance on history exams. Their results showed that students who tested themselves on material they had learned, rather than simply reviewing or rereading subjects had both better and longer lasting retention. The term Testing Effect is used to describe this increase in memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=March 2006|title=Test-Enhanced Learning|journal=Psychological Science|language=en-US|volume=17|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x|pmid=16507066|s2cid=16067307|issn=0956-7976}}</ref>
The method that many students who like to add an overt structure to their learning to keep them on track is the [[PQRST]] method. It helps the student focus on studying and prioritizing the information in a way that relates directly to how they will be asked to use that information in an exam. The method can also be modified to suit any particular form of learning in most subjects. It can also allow more accurate timing of work so instead of having to decide how much time to attribute to one whole topic you can decide how long it might take to preview the material and then each step after that.
Taking notes by using a computer can also deter impactful learning, even when students are using computers solely for the purpose note-taking and are not attempting to multitask, during lectures or study sessions. This is likely due to shallower processing from students using computers to take notes. Taking notes on a computer often ushers a tendency for students to record lectures verbatim, instead of writing the points of a lecture in their own words.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mueller|first1=Pam A.|last2=Oppenheimer|first2=Daniel M.|date=2014-04-23|title=The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard|journal=Psychological Science|language=en-US|volume=25|issue=6|pages=1159–1168|doi=10.1177/0956797614524581|pmid=24760141|s2cid=2321596|issn=0956-7976}}</ref>


Speed reading, while trainable, results in lower accuracy, comprehension, and understanding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://espressoscience.com/2017/02/15/the-fiction-and-facts-of-speed-reading/|title=The fiction and facts of speed reading|date=14 February 2017}}</ref>
#'''Preview:''' Look at the topic you have to learn glancing over the major headings or the points in the syllabus.
#'''Question:''' Formulate questions that you would like to be able to answer once you have finished the topic. It is important that you match as much as possible what you would like to know to your syllabus or course direction. This allows a certain flexibility to take in other topics that may aid your learning of the main point or if you are just interested. Make sure that your questions are neither more specific or more open-ended than they might be in an exam.
#'''Read:''' Read through your reference material that relates to the topic you want to learn for your exam being mindful to pick out the information that best relates to the questions you wish to answer.
#'''Summary:''' This is the most flexible part of the method and allows individual students to bring any ways that they used to summarize information into the process. This can include making written notes, spider diagrams, flow diagrams, labeled diagrams, [[mnemonics]], making a voice recording of you summarizing the topic, or any method that feels most appropriate for what has to be learned. You can combine several methods as long as this doesn't extend the process too long as you may lose sight that you are merely seeking to use the information in the most appropriate way.
#'''Test:''' Use this step to assess whether you have focused on the important information and stayed on topic. Answer the questions that you set for yourself in the Question section as fully as you can as this using of the information is another way of using the information and remembering more of it. This section also reminds you to continually manipulate the information so that is focused on whatever form of assessment that it is needed for. It is sometimes easy to lose sight of the point of learning and see it as a task to be completed mundanely. Try to avoid adding questions that you didn't formulate in the Q section.


===Re-writing Notes===
=== Flashcards ===
This is time consuming, but probably one of the cheapest and most effective ways of studying. There are two types of information that can be written over again: notes taken in class, or information out of a text book. If you're going to re-write notes that were taken from class, then you're ready whenever you have the time: just get out your notebook, pen and extra paper and begin to re-write. If you're going to re-write parts of a chapter from a book, the best way to go about it is: Highlight all the important information in the chapter. This makes re-writing quicker. Next, re-write the information that you've highlighted. This is good for students who don't retain information well from lecture classes.


'''Flashcards''' are visual cues on cards. These have numerous uses in teaching and learning but can be used for revision. Students often make their own [[flashcard]]s, or more detailed '''index cards''' – cards designed for filing, often A5 size, on which short summaries are written. Being discrete and separate, they have the advantage of allowing students to re-order them, pick a selection to read over, or choose randomly for self-testing. Software equivalents can be used.
Once you’re finished, the next step is one of the following: Write the notes again. If you can find time to re-write your notes at least twice, you’ll have a better chance of remembering. More than twice is even better, but it’s hard to find time for that. The other option is to make flashcards or mock test questions (both techniques are listed in this entry).


===Summary Skills===
=== Summary methods ===


Summary methods vary depending on the topic, but most involve condensing the large amount of information from a course or book into shorter notes. Often, these notes are then condensed further into key facts.
Every student will have summary methods that are individual to them as the subjects they are using them for. It is important to vary your summary skills set and not get stuck on one method that you have always done and have had success with. Some methods are better suited to different subjects and tasks, e.g. mnemonics may fare better for learning lists or facts while spider diagrams better for linking concepts.


'''Organized summaries:''' Such as [[outline (list)|outlines]] showing [[Index term|keywords]] and definitions and relations, usually in a [[tree structure]].
'''Mnemonics''': This is a very old method of memorizing lists and organising them. As they are often funny, rude, or explicit, they are sometimes not seen as the creative and effective memory devices that actually aids the process of categorising information that occurs in the brain when trying to remember new facts by linking them to an event, word, or location.


'''Spider diagrams:''' Using [[spider diagram]]s or [[mind map]]s can be an effective way of linking concepts together. They can be useful for planning essays and essay responses in exams. These tools can give a visual summary of a topic that preserves its logical structure, with lines used to show how different parts link together.
Example 1: A simple childhood mnemonic is used for learning the points of the compass. '''N'''ever '''E'''at '''S'''hredded '''W'''heat reminds us not only of the points of the compass but in the order they occur when encountered clockwise.


===Visual imagery ===
Example 2: Unlike elephants and compasses the best mnenomics actually relate directly to what it is that has to be learnt. A medical example of this is related to the four muscles surrounding the shoulder (the mnemonic taken from the first letter of each muscle givens '''SITS''') and it is said that anyone hurting these muscles '''SITS''' out from sports or other activities. Given context the mnemonic itself is more useful as a memory tool despite also reminding you of the names of the muscles, the order in which they are located and so on.


Some memory techniques make use of visual memory. One popular memory enhancing technique is the [[method of loci]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Foer |first1=Joshua |title=Forget Me Not: How to win the U.S. Memory Championship |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2005/03/how-to-win-the-u-s-memory-championship.html |website=slate.com |date=16 March 2005 |publisher=slate |access-date=May 14, 2020}}</ref> a system of visualizing key information in real physical locations e.g. around a room.
The best menomics are generally personal ones that you generate at the point of learning and if possible are arranged to be in context. You can also use the imagery created e.g. an elephant with a compass in the first example, to remember the information more as images and stories in a method often praised by people who teach people to improve their memory.


'''Diagrams''' are often underrated tools.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Diezmann|first1=Carmel|last2=English, Lyndall|first2=Lyndall|date=2001|title=Promoting the use of Diagrams as Tools for Thinking.|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/1637/|journal=In the Roles of Representation in School Mathematics: 2001 Yearbook.|publisher=National Council of Teachers of Mathematics|pages=77–89|isbn=9780873534956}}</ref> They can be used to bring all the information together and provide practice reorganizing what has been learned in order to produce something practical and useful. They can also aid the recall of information learned very quickly, particularly if the student made the diagram while studying the information. Pictures can then be transferred to flashcards that are very effective last-minute revision tools rather than rereading any written material.
'''Spider diagrams:''' Using spider diagrams or [[mind map]]s can be an effective way of linking concepts together. They are incredibly useful for planning essays and essays in exams. They can also be useful for linking loosely related chains of facts and make them form a more solid narrative of connected information. There are many books available that built on spider diagrams or mind maps as an effective summary tool used in all parts of modern life.


=== Acronyms and mnemonics ===
'''Diagrams:''' Diagrams are often underrated tools. They can be used to bring all the information together and give you practice at reorganizing what you have learned in order to produce something practical and useful. They can also remind you of information you have learned very quickly particularly if you made the diagram yourself at the time that you learned the information. Try buying a notebook with no lines and make a sketch, diagram, or pictogram of the information you have just learned. This could form part of the Summary part of the PQRST method or in any other way. These pictures can then be transferred to [[Flashcard|flash cards]] that are very effective last minute revision tools rather than rereading any written material.


A '''mnemonic''' is a method of organizing and memorizing information. There are four main types of mnemonic: (1) Narrative (relying on a story of some kind, or a sequence of real or imagined events); (2) Sonic/Textual (using rhythm or repeated sound, such as rhyme, or memorable textual patterns such as acronyms); (3) Visual (diagrams, mind maps, graphs, images, etc.); (4) 'Topical' (meaning ‘place-dependent’, for instance, using features of a familiar room, building or set of landmarks as a way of coding and recalling sequenced facts).<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission Possible (p.42-43)|url=http://www.mariopetrucci.com/pictures/missionpossiblestudent.pdf |access-date=May 22, 2021}}</ref> Some mnemonics use a simple phrase or fact as a trigger for a longer list of information. For example, the cardinal points of the [[compass]] can be recalled in the correct order with the phrase "'''N'''ever '''E'''at '''S'''hredded '''W'''heat". Starting with '''North''', the first letter of each word relates to a compass point in clockwise order round a compass.
'''FlashCards (A5 index cards):''' These are effective revision tools but students often set out to make them and they become more of a chore. It is much more effective to make cards at the time that you are revising. If these cards are made during the summary part of the PQRST method then are directly associated with what you learned. The cards are less effective when students set out to make them late in a revision cycle merely as tools to look at during the 20-30 minutes before an exam. The cards are indeed useful for last minute reading as they offer nothing new and therefore is more likely to focus on what you know and not alert you to something you don't know so well.


===Examination strategies ===
'''Hybridize all of the above:''' Since each of the above methods is proven to improve study outcomes, it makes sense that the ideal should be to do all of the above at once. Checkout study software generally for this approach where a hybrid of the above is emphasized.


The '''Black-Red-Green method''' (developed through the Royal Literary Fund) helps the student to ensure that every aspect of the question posed has been considered, both in [[exam]]s and essays.<ref>Royal Literary Fund: ''Mission Possible: the Study Skills Pack'' http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/writing/mission_possible.cfm</ref> The student underlines relevant parts of the question using three separate colors (or some equivalent). '''BLA'''ck denotes ''''BLA'''tant instructions', i.e. something that clearly must be done; a directive or obvious instruction. '''RE'''d is a '''RE'''ference Point or '''RE'''quired input of some kind, usually to do with definitions, terms, cited authors, theory, etc. (either explicitly referred to or strongly implied). '''GRE'''en denotes '''GRE'''mlins, which are subtle signals one might easily miss, or a ‘'''GRE'''EN Light’ that gives a hint on how to proceed, or where to place the emphasis in answers. Another popular method while studying is to use the PEE method; Point, evidence and explain, reason being, this helps the student break down exam questions allowing them to maximize their marks/grade during the exam. Many Schools will encourage practicing the P.E. BEing method prior to an exam.
===Happy Pyramids===


=== Spacing ===
Some students find the topics that they are revising overwhelming and seemingly endless. Although the PQRST method can help maintain your focus on the whole point of learning the large topic in the first place there are other methods that help facilitate your learning.
'''Spacing''', also called '''distributed learning''' by some; helps individuals remember at least as much if not more information for a longer period of time than using only one study skill. Using spacing in addition to other study methods can improve retention and performance on tests.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens|last=Carey|first=Benedict|publisher=Random House|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8129-8429-3|location=New York|pages=65–66}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Putnam|first1=Adam L.|last2=Sungkhasettee|first2=Victor W.|last3=Roediger|first3=Henry L.|date=September 2016|title=Optimizing Learning in College|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en-US|volume=11|issue=5|pages=652–660|doi=10.1177/1745691616645770|pmid=27694461|s2cid=39205446|issn=1745-6916}}</ref> Spacing is especially useful for retaining and recalling new material.<ref name=":0" /> The theory of spacing allows students to split that a single long session to a few shorter sessions in a day, if not days apart, instead of cramming all study materials into one long study session that lasts for hours. Studying will not last longer than it would have originally, and one is not working harder but this tool gives the user the ability to remember and recall things for a longer time period. [[Spacing effect]] is not only beneficial for memorization, but [[spaced repetition]] can also potentially improve classroom learning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dempster|first=Frank|date=December 1989|title=Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice.|journal=Educ Psychol Rev|volume=1|issue=4|pages=309–330|doi=10.1007/BF01320097|s2cid=144608241}}</ref> The science behind this; according to Jost's Law from 1897 “If two associations are of equal strength but of different age, a new repetition has a greater value for the older one”.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens|last=Carey|first=Benedict|publisher=Random House|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8129-8429-3|location=New York|pages=68}}</ref> This means that if a person were to study two things once, at different times, the one studied most recently will be easier to recall.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Carpenter|first1=Shana K.|last2=Cepeda|first2=Nicholas J.|last3=Rohrer|first3=Doug|last4=Kang|first4=Sean H. K.|last5=Pashler|first5=Harold|date=2012-09-01|title=Using Spacing to Enhance Diverse Forms of Learning: Review of Recent Research and Implications for Instruction|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=369–378|doi=10.1007/s10648-012-9205-z|s2cid=12878251|issn=1573-336X|citeseerx=10.1.1.947.4929}}</ref>


=== Interleaving and blocking ===
'''Blocking''' is studying one topic at a time. '''Interleaving''' is another technique used to enhance learning and memory; it involves practicing and learning multiple related skills or topics.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Brown, Peter C.|title=Make it stick : the science of successful learning|others=Roediger, Henry L., III,, McDaniel, Mark A.|date=14 April 2014|isbn=978-0-674-72901-8|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|oclc=859168651}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Pan|first=Steven C.|title=The Interleaving Effect: Mixing It Up Boosts Learning|url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-interleaving-effect-mixing-it-up-boosts-learning/|access-date=2020-07-12|website=Scientific American|language=en}}</ref> For example, when training three skills A, B and C: blocking uses the pattern of AAA-BBB-CCC while interleaving uses the pattern of ABC-ABC-ABC.<ref name=":3" /> Research has found that interleaving is superior to blocking in learning skills and studying.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />


=== Retrieval and testing ===
If you break a large topic in a series of smaller topics that can be defined as a size of material that takes less than 10 minutes each to complete. Even the largest project or topic can be broken down into these bitesize sections. The important part comes in regarding the series of smaller 10 minutes as adding up to the whole topic and that it is finished.
One of the most efficient methods of learning is trying to retrieve learned information and skills.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Oakley |first=Barbara A. |author-link=Barbara Oakley |title=A mind for numbers : how to excel at math and science (even if you flunked algebra)|year=2014|isbn=978-0-399-16524-5|location=New York|oclc=861673567}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=6 Study Techniques Every Clinical Student Should Know|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/849951|access-date=2020-07-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Schwartz|first=John|date=2017-08-04|title=Learning to Learn: You, Too, Can Rewire Your Brain|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/04/education/edlife/learning-how-to-learn-barbara-oakley.html|access-date=2020-07-12|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Learning Brain|url=https://www.goodreads.com/work/best_book/63168955-the-learning-brain|access-date=2020-07-12|website=www.goodreads.com}}</ref> This could be achieved by leveraging the [[testing effect]] including: [[Test (assessment)|testing]], [[quiz]]zing, self-testing, [[Problem solving|problem-solving]], [[active recall]], flashcards, [[Practice (learning method)|practicing]] the skills, and other.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Augustin|first=Marc|date=2014-06-06|title=How to Learn Effectively in Medical School: Test Yourself, Learn Actively, and Repeat in Intervals|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=87|issue=2|pages=207–212|issn=0044-0086|pmc=4031794|pmid=24910566}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Learning Strategies|url=http://med.stanford.edu/md/academic-support/learning-strategies.html|access-date=2020-07-12|website=MD Program|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Chang|first=Edward|date=2014|title=Build Effective, Efficient Study Habits for Medical School|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/blogs/medical-school-admissions-doctor/2014/02/25/build-effective-efficient-study-habits-for-medical-school|website=U.S. News}}</ref>


=== Time management, organization and lifestyle changes ===
This system can be drawn as a pyramid with topics requiring incrementally more time on each level. So if you decided that you needed to break it into 20 minute segments then you could place 10 minute and 5 minute topics on lower levels of the pyramid that mount up to the whole topic at the apex of the pyramid. Starting from the bottom when all the smaller blocks are in the place then the pyramid is built and the topic finished.


Often, improvements to the effectiveness of study may be achieved through changes to things unrelated to the study material itself, such as [[Time management|time-management]], boosting [[motivation]] and avoiding [[procrastination]], and in improvements to [[sleep]] and [[diet (nutrition)|diet]].
Topic ABCDEFGHIJK Collectively 1.5 hours


Time management in study sessions aims to ensure that activities that achieve the greatest benefit are given the greatest focus. A '''traffic lights''' system is a simple way of identifying the importance of information, highlighting or underlining information in colours:
Part 1 ABC 20 Minutes
* Green: topics to be studied first; important and also simple
* Amber: topics to be studied next; important but time-consuming
* Red: lowest priority; complex and not vital.


This reminds students to start with the things which will provide the quickest benefit, while 'red' topics are only dealt with if time allows. The concept is similar to the [[ABC analysis]], commonly used by workers to help prioritize. Also, some websites (such as [[FlashNotes]]) can be used for additional study materials and may help improve time management and increase motivation.
Part 2 DEF 10 Minutes


In addition to time management, sleep is important; getting adequate rest improves memorisation.<ref>[https://www.teenlife.com/blogs/articles/how-study-more-efficiently Study Efficiently] TeenLife Media, January, 2015</ref> Students are generally more productive in the morning than the afternoon.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://home.uchicago.edu/~npope/morning_afternoon.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-05-04 |archive-date=2018-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416044313/http://home.uchicago.edu/~npope/morning_afternoon.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Part 3 GHI 5 Minutes


In addition to time management and sleep, emotional state of mind can matter when a student is studying. If an individual is calm or nervous in class; replicating that emotion can assist in studying. With replicating the emotion, an individual is more likely to recall more information if they are in the same state of mind when in class. This also goes the other direction; if one is upset but normally calm in class it's much better to wait until they are feeling calmer to study. At the time of the test or class they will remember more.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens|last=Carey|first=Benedict|publisher=Random House|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8129-8429-3|location=New York|pages=47}}</ref>
Part 4 JK 5 minutes


While productivity is greater earlier in the day, current research suggests that material studied in the afternoon or evening is better consolidated and retained. This is consistent with current memory consolidation models that student tasks requiring analysis and application are better suited toward the morning and midday while learning new information and memorizing are better suited to evenings.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holz|first1=Johannes|last2=Piosczyk|first2=Hannah|last3=Landmann|first3=Nina|last4=Feige|first4=Bernd|last5=Spiegelhalder|first5=Kai|last6=Riemann|first6=Dieter|last7=Nissen|first7=Christoph|last8=Voderholzer|first8=Ulrich|date=2012-07-12|title=The Timing of Learning before Night-Time Sleep Differentially Affects Declarative and Procedural Long-Term Memory Consolidation in Adolescents|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=7|issue=7|pages=e40963|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0040963|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3395672|pmid=22808287|bibcode=2012PLoSO...740963H|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Something that may have been put or slowed down by the size or important of the topic may be greatly shortened. Of course you can apply any other study skill such as the PQRST method to each of the individual parts to help their progression..


The Pomodoro Method is another effective way of increasing the productivity a set amount of time, by limiting interruptions. Invented in the 1980s, the [[Pomodoro Technique]] segments blocks of time into 30-minute sections. Each 30-minute section (called a Pomodoro) is composed of a 25-minute study or work period and a 5-minute rest period. And it is recommended that every 4 Pomodoro's, should be followed with a 15-30-minute break. Though this technique has increased in popularity, it hadn't been empirically studied until more recently. A software engineering corporation found that employees using the Pomodoro Method saw a decrease in their work flow interruptions and an increase in their satisfaction. by being mindful of wasted time during study, students can increase their learning productivity.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ruensuk|first=Mintra|title=2016 IEEE/ACIS 15th International Conference on Computer and Information Science (ICIS) |chapter=An implementation to reduce internal/External interruptions in Agile software development using pomodoro technique |date=June 2016|location=Okayama, Japan|publisher=IEEE|pages=1–4|doi=10.1109/ICIS.2016.7550835|isbn=978-1-5090-0806-3|s2cid=4880758}}</ref>
===Traffic Lights===


Journaling can help students increase their academic performance principally through reducing stress and anxiety. Much of students’ difficulty or aversion to analytic subjects such as math or science, is due to a lack of confidence or belief that learning is reasonably within their abilities. Therefore, reducing the stress of learning new and/or complex material is paramount to helping them succeed. Students without access to an outside source of support can use journaling to simulate a similar environment and effect. For example, Frattaroli, et al., studied students that were preparing to take graduate study entrance exams, such as the GRE, LSAT, and MCAT. They found that students’ journal entries recorded immediately before taking these historically stress-inducing tests followed a similar logical flow; where during the beginning of writing, participants would express fear or concern toward the test. However, through the course of writing their experiences down, participants would encourage themselves and ultimately cultivate hope in upcoming exams. As a result of this, those who journaled immediately before these tests reported a lower amount of anxiety, and a better test result.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frattaroli|first1=Joanne|last2=Thomas|first2=Michael|last3=Lyubomirsky|first3=Sonja|date=2011|title=Opening up in the classroom: Effects of expressive writing on graduate school entrance exam performance.|journal=Emotion|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=691–696|doi=10.1037/a0022946|pmid=21517162|issn=1931-1516|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.664|s2cid=2997648 }}</ref>
It is a common pitfall in studying to set out to learn everything that you have been taught in an orderly and precise fashion. If time, boredom, and fatigue were not variables that can impact on your studying and even health then this may always be possible. More normally you will have a set amount of time (that doesn't encroach on leisure time for any reason) to learn a set amount of topics. An easy way to separate what is really important to know (likely to constitute the majority of exam marks) from what you would like to know if you had infinite time and energy is the traffic light system.


=== Studying environment ===
'''Green:''' Take a green pen and label or place a star next to everything that is essential to know for your exam. These topics should be studied first and allow you to progress to the less number of amber and red topics. These should generally be the first few on a syllabus and be the easiest concepts to learn but also the easiest to underestimate.
Studying can also be more effective if one changes their environment while studying. For example: the first time studying the material, one can study in a bedroom, the second time one can study outside, and the final time one can study in a coffee shop. The thinking behind this is that as when an individual changes their environment the brain associates different aspects of the learning and gives a stronger hold and additional brain pathways with which to access the information. In this context environment can mean many things; from location, to sounds, to smells, to other stimuli including foods. When discussing environment in regards to its effect on studying and retention Carey says “a simple change in venue improved retrieval strength (memory) by 40 percent.”<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens|last=Carey|first=Benedict|publisher=Random House|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8129-8429-3|location=New York|pages=62}}</ref> Another change in the environment can be background music; if people study with music playing and they are able to play the same music during test time they will recall more of the information they studied.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bower|first1=Gordon H.|last2=Winzenz|first2=David|date=1970-02-01|title=Comparison of associative learning strategies|journal=Psychonomic Science|language=en|volume=20|issue=2|pages=119–120|doi=10.3758/BF03335632|issn=0033-3131|doi-access=free}}</ref> According to Carey “background music weaves itself subconsciously into the fabric of stored memory.”<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The Surprising Truth About How We Learn And Why It Happens|last=Carey|first=Benedict|publisher=Random House|year=2015|isbn=978-0-8129-8429-3|location=New York|pages=51}}</ref> This “distraction” in the background helps to create more vivid memories with the studied material.<ref name=":1" />


===Analogies===
'''Amber:''' Take an orange or gold pen and label everything that is neither essential to know or is not too time consuming to learn. This should form the mainstay of your learning and range from topics leading from the green range of topics to ones leading to the red range of topics.


Analogies can be a highly effective way to increase the efficiency of coding and long-term memory. Popular uses of analogies are often forming visual images that represent subject matter, linking words or information to one's self, and either imagining or creating diagrams that display the relationship between elements of complex concepts. A 1970 study done by Bower and Winzez found that as participants created analogies that had sentimentality or relevance to themselves as a unique individual, they were better able to store information as well as recall what had been studied. This is referred to as the Self-reference Effect. Adding to this phenomenon, examples that are more familiar an individual or that are more vivid or detailed are even more easily remembered. However, analogies that are logically flawed and/or are not clearly described can create misleading or superficial models in learners.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theelearningcoach.com/learning/analogies-for-learning/ |title=How To Write Better Analogies For Learning |first=Connie |last=Malamed |year=2013 |access-date=5 July 2019 |work=The eLearning Coach}}</ref>
'''Red:''' Take a red pen and label everything you would want to know if you had all the time and energy necessary but not at the expense of the essential green topics and desired amber topics. This would include overly complicated ideas and subjects that may add one or two marks but may cost you if you focus all your attention just on knowing the more difficult bits and underestimating the importance of accumulating the green and amber topics first and to a greater extend. A greater focus on green and amber topics may also lead to topics that seemed red to become more amber as time goes on.


===Concept mapping===
The color system should remind you that it is easier to get moving on green topics and to be needlessly stopped and held up by red topics. It is also important to stop amber topics It is also a healthy reminder to keeping your learning as a progressive experience and never allow it to stagnate where all topics become more red in nature as you become more tired and bored. An alternative form of this can be used in which you determine which subjects you need to spend more time on.
{{More citations needed|section|date=March 2022|find=concept mapping efficacy}}
There is some support for the efficacy of [[concept map]]ping as a learning tool.<ref>{{cite web |last=Boucquey |first=Noelle Christiane |date=1 April 2015 |title=The concept map: a learning tool for any subject |url=https://teachingcommons.stanford.edu/teaching-talk/concept-map-learning-tool-any-subject |access-date=5 July 2019 |work=[[Stanford University]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214030331/https://teachingcommons.stanford.edu/teaching-talk/concept-map-learning-tool-any-subject |archive-date=2019-12-14 }}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Homework]]
*[[Learning]]
*[[Andragogy#Adult learning styles|Learning styles]]
*[[Reading day]]
*[[Speed reading]]
*[[SQ3R]]
*[[Study guide]]
*[[Study software]]
*[[Video study guide]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Study Skills}}
{{Wikibooks|Study Skills}}
*[http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/journals/pspi/learning-techniques.html Improving Students’ Learning With Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and Educational Psychology] from ''[[Association for Psychological Science]]''
* [[Homework]]
* [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130728588&sc=fb&cc=fp Think You Know How To Study? Think Again] - audio report by ''[[NPR]]''
* [[Learning]]
*[https://students.dartmouth.edu/academic-skills/programs/first-year-students/strategic-learning-videos Academic learning strategy videos] from ''[[Dartmouth College]]'' provide skills training
* [[Study software|Study Software]]

== External links ==
* [http://thinkingbuddy.uni.cc/wiki/?title=How+to+improve+concentration+in+studies A good study technique]
* [http://www.studygs.net/ Study Guides and Strategies]
* [http://www.coursehero.com/ Collaborative Study Environment]
* [http://www.eudaigroup.com/memorytest/ Tips for remembering dates and long numbers]


{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Study Skills}}
[[Category:Learning methods]]
[[Category:Learning methods]]
[[Category:Human skills]]


[[de:Lernmethode]]
[[he:מיומנויות למידה]]
[[ja:勉強法]]

Latest revision as of 03:29, 3 January 2024

A student studying outdoors

Study skills or study strategies are approaches applied to learning. Study skills are an array of skills which tackle the process of organizing and taking in new information, retaining information, or dealing with assessments. They are discrete techniques that can be learned, usually in a short time, and applied to all or most fields of study. More broadly, any skill which boosts a person's ability to study, retain and recall information which assists in and passing exams can be termed a study skill, and this could include time management and motivational techniques.

Some examples are mnemonics, which aid the retention of lists of information; effective reading; concentration techniques;[1] and efficient note taking.[2]

Due to the generic nature of study skills, they must, therefore, be distinguished from strategies that are specific to a particular field of study (e.g. music or technology), and from abilities inherent in the student, such as aspects of intelligence or learning styles. It is crucial in this, however, for students to gain initial insight into their habitual approaches to study, so they may better understand the dynamics and personal resistances to learning new techniques.[3]

Historical context[edit]

Study skills are generally critical to success in school,[4] considered essential for acquiring good grades, and useful for learning throughout one's life. While often left up to the student and their support network, study skills are increasingly taught at the high school and university level.

The term study skills is used for general approaches to learning, skills for specific courses of study. There are many theoretical works on the subject, including a vast number of popular books and websites. Manuals for students have been published since the 1940s.[5]

In the 1950s and 1960s, college instructors in the fields of psychology and the study of education used to research, theory, and experience with their own students in writing manuals.[6][7] Marvin Cohn based the advice for parents in his 1978 book Helping Your Teen-Age Student on his experience as a researcher and head of a university reading clinic that tutored teenagers and young adults.[8] In 1986, when Dr. Gary Gruber’s Essential Guide to Test Taking for Kids was first published, the author had written 22 books on taking standardized tests. A work in two volumes, one for upper elementary grades and the other for middle school, the Guide has methods for taking tests and completing schoolwork.[9][10]

Types[edit]

Rehearsal and rote learning[edit]

Main article: Rote learning

Memorization is the process of committing something to memory, often by rote.[11] The act of memorization is often a deliberate mental process undertaken in order to store information in one's memory for later recall. This information can be experiences, names, appointments, addresses, telephone numbers, lists, stories, poems, pictures, maps, diagrams, facts, music or other visual, auditory, or tactical information. Memorization may also refer to the process of storing particular data into the memory of a device. One of the most basic approaches to learning any information is simply to repeat it by rote. Typically this will include reading over notes or a textbook and re-writing notes.

The weakness of rote learning is that it implies a passive reading and listening style. Educators such as John Dewey have argued that students need to learn critical thinking – questioning and weighing up evidence as they learn. This can be done during lectures or when reading books.

Reading and listening[edit]

A method that is useful during the first interaction with the subject of study is REAP method. This method helps students to improve their understanding of the text and bridge the idea with that of the author's. REAP is an acronym for Read, Encode, Annotate and Ponder.[12]

  1. Read: Reading a section to discern the idea.
  2. Encode: Paraphrasing the idea from the author's perspective to the student's own words.
  3. Annotate: Annotating the section with critical understanding and other relevant notes.
  4. Ponder: To ponder about what they read through thinking, discussing with others and reading related materials. Thus it allows the possibility of elaboration and fulfillment of zone of proximal development.

Annotating and Encoding helps reprocess content into concise and coherent knowledge which adds to a meaningful symbolic fund of knowledge. Precise annotation, Organizing question annotation, Intentional annotation, and Probe annotation are some of the annotation methods used.

A student using the PQRST method

A method used to focus on key information when studying from books uncritically is the PQRST method.[13] This method prioritizes the information in a way that relates directly to how they will be asked to use that information in an exam. PQRST is an acronym for Preview, Question, Read, Summary, Test.[14]

  1. Preview: The student looks at the topic to be learned by glancing over the major headings or the points in the syllabus.
  2. Question: The student formulates questions to be answered following a thorough examination of the topic(s).
  3. Read: The student reads through the related material, focusing on the information that best relates to the questions formulated earlier.
  4. Summary: The student summarizes the topic, bringing his or her own understanding of the process. This may include written notes, spider diagrams, flow diagrams, labeled diagrams, mnemonics, or even voice recordings.
  5. Test: The student answers the questions drafted earlier, avoiding adding any questions that might distract or change the subject.

There are a variety of studies from different colleges nationwide that show peer-communication can help increase better study habits tremendously. One study shows that an average of 73% score increase was recorded by those who were enrolled in the classes surveyed.[citation needed]

In order to make reading or reviewing material more engaging and active, learners can create cues that will stimulate recall later on. A cue can be a word, short phrase, or song that helps the learner access a memory that was encoded intentionally with this prompt in mind. The use of cues to aid memory has been popular for many years, however, research suggests that adopting cues made by others is not as effective as cues that learners create themselves.[citation needed]

Self-testing is another effective practice, when preparing for exams or other standardized memory recall situations. Many students prepare for exams by simply rereading textbook passages or materials. However, it's likely that this can create a false sense of understanding because of the increased familiarity that students have with passages that they have reviewed recently or frequently. Instead, in 2006, Roediger and Karpicke studied eighth-grade students’ performance on history exams. Their results showed that students who tested themselves on material they had learned, rather than simply reviewing or rereading subjects had both better and longer lasting retention. The term Testing Effect is used to describe this increase in memory performance.[15]

Taking notes by using a computer can also deter impactful learning, even when students are using computers solely for the purpose note-taking and are not attempting to multitask, during lectures or study sessions. This is likely due to shallower processing from students using computers to take notes. Taking notes on a computer often ushers a tendency for students to record lectures verbatim, instead of writing the points of a lecture in their own words.[16]

Speed reading, while trainable, results in lower accuracy, comprehension, and understanding.[17]

Flashcards[edit]

Flashcards are visual cues on cards. These have numerous uses in teaching and learning but can be used for revision. Students often make their own flashcards, or more detailed index cards – cards designed for filing, often A5 size, on which short summaries are written. Being discrete and separate, they have the advantage of allowing students to re-order them, pick a selection to read over, or choose randomly for self-testing. Software equivalents can be used.

Summary methods[edit]

Summary methods vary depending on the topic, but most involve condensing the large amount of information from a course or book into shorter notes. Often, these notes are then condensed further into key facts.

Organized summaries: Such as outlines showing keywords and definitions and relations, usually in a tree structure.

Spider diagrams: Using spider diagrams or mind maps can be an effective way of linking concepts together. They can be useful for planning essays and essay responses in exams. These tools can give a visual summary of a topic that preserves its logical structure, with lines used to show how different parts link together.

Visual imagery[edit]

Some memory techniques make use of visual memory. One popular memory enhancing technique is the method of loci,[18] a system of visualizing key information in real physical locations e.g. around a room.

Diagrams are often underrated tools.[19] They can be used to bring all the information together and provide practice reorganizing what has been learned in order to produce something practical and useful. They can also aid the recall of information learned very quickly, particularly if the student made the diagram while studying the information. Pictures can then be transferred to flashcards that are very effective last-minute revision tools rather than rereading any written material.

Acronyms and mnemonics[edit]

A mnemonic is a method of organizing and memorizing information. There are four main types of mnemonic: (1) Narrative (relying on a story of some kind, or a sequence of real or imagined events); (2) Sonic/Textual (using rhythm or repeated sound, such as rhyme, or memorable textual patterns such as acronyms); (3) Visual (diagrams, mind maps, graphs, images, etc.); (4) 'Topical' (meaning ‘place-dependent’, for instance, using features of a familiar room, building or set of landmarks as a way of coding and recalling sequenced facts).[20] Some mnemonics use a simple phrase or fact as a trigger for a longer list of information. For example, the cardinal points of the compass can be recalled in the correct order with the phrase "Never Eat Shredded Wheat". Starting with North, the first letter of each word relates to a compass point in clockwise order round a compass.

Examination strategies[edit]

The Black-Red-Green method (developed through the Royal Literary Fund) helps the student to ensure that every aspect of the question posed has been considered, both in exams and essays.[21] The student underlines relevant parts of the question using three separate colors (or some equivalent). BLAck denotes 'BLAtant instructions', i.e. something that clearly must be done; a directive or obvious instruction. REd is a REference Point or REquired input of some kind, usually to do with definitions, terms, cited authors, theory, etc. (either explicitly referred to or strongly implied). GREen denotes GREmlins, which are subtle signals one might easily miss, or a ‘GREEN Light’ that gives a hint on how to proceed, or where to place the emphasis in answers. Another popular method while studying is to use the PEE method; Point, evidence and explain, reason being, this helps the student break down exam questions allowing them to maximize their marks/grade during the exam. Many Schools will encourage practicing the P.E. BEing method prior to an exam.

Spacing[edit]

Spacing, also called distributed learning by some; helps individuals remember at least as much if not more information for a longer period of time than using only one study skill. Using spacing in addition to other study methods can improve retention and performance on tests.[22][23] Spacing is especially useful for retaining and recalling new material.[22] The theory of spacing allows students to split that a single long session to a few shorter sessions in a day, if not days apart, instead of cramming all study materials into one long study session that lasts for hours. Studying will not last longer than it would have originally, and one is not working harder but this tool gives the user the ability to remember and recall things for a longer time period. Spacing effect is not only beneficial for memorization, but spaced repetition can also potentially improve classroom learning.[24] The science behind this; according to Jost's Law from 1897 “If two associations are of equal strength but of different age, a new repetition has a greater value for the older one”.[25] This means that if a person were to study two things once, at different times, the one studied most recently will be easier to recall.[26]

Interleaving and blocking[edit]

Blocking is studying one topic at a time. Interleaving is another technique used to enhance learning and memory; it involves practicing and learning multiple related skills or topics.[27][28] For example, when training three skills A, B and C: blocking uses the pattern of AAA-BBB-CCC while interleaving uses the pattern of ABC-ABC-ABC.[28] Research has found that interleaving is superior to blocking in learning skills and studying.[27][28]

Retrieval and testing[edit]

One of the most efficient methods of learning is trying to retrieve learned information and skills.[27][29][30][31][32] This could be achieved by leveraging the testing effect including: testing, quizzing, self-testing, problem-solving, active recall, flashcards, practicing the skills, and other.[27][29][33][34][35]

Time management, organization and lifestyle changes[edit]

Often, improvements to the effectiveness of study may be achieved through changes to things unrelated to the study material itself, such as time-management, boosting motivation and avoiding procrastination, and in improvements to sleep and diet.

Time management in study sessions aims to ensure that activities that achieve the greatest benefit are given the greatest focus. A traffic lights system is a simple way of identifying the importance of information, highlighting or underlining information in colours:

  • Green: topics to be studied first; important and also simple
  • Amber: topics to be studied next; important but time-consuming
  • Red: lowest priority; complex and not vital.

This reminds students to start with the things which will provide the quickest benefit, while 'red' topics are only dealt with if time allows. The concept is similar to the ABC analysis, commonly used by workers to help prioritize. Also, some websites (such as FlashNotes) can be used for additional study materials and may help improve time management and increase motivation.

In addition to time management, sleep is important; getting adequate rest improves memorisation.[36] Students are generally more productive in the morning than the afternoon.[37]

In addition to time management and sleep, emotional state of mind can matter when a student is studying. If an individual is calm or nervous in class; replicating that emotion can assist in studying. With replicating the emotion, an individual is more likely to recall more information if they are in the same state of mind when in class. This also goes the other direction; if one is upset but normally calm in class it's much better to wait until they are feeling calmer to study. At the time of the test or class they will remember more.[38]

While productivity is greater earlier in the day, current research suggests that material studied in the afternoon or evening is better consolidated and retained. This is consistent with current memory consolidation models that student tasks requiring analysis and application are better suited toward the morning and midday while learning new information and memorizing are better suited to evenings.[39]

The Pomodoro Method is another effective way of increasing the productivity a set amount of time, by limiting interruptions. Invented in the 1980s, the Pomodoro Technique segments blocks of time into 30-minute sections. Each 30-minute section (called a Pomodoro) is composed of a 25-minute study or work period and a 5-minute rest period. And it is recommended that every 4 Pomodoro's, should be followed with a 15-30-minute break. Though this technique has increased in popularity, it hadn't been empirically studied until more recently. A software engineering corporation found that employees using the Pomodoro Method saw a decrease in their work flow interruptions and an increase in their satisfaction. by being mindful of wasted time during study, students can increase their learning productivity.[40]

Journaling can help students increase their academic performance principally through reducing stress and anxiety. Much of students’ difficulty or aversion to analytic subjects such as math or science, is due to a lack of confidence or belief that learning is reasonably within their abilities. Therefore, reducing the stress of learning new and/or complex material is paramount to helping them succeed. Students without access to an outside source of support can use journaling to simulate a similar environment and effect. For example, Frattaroli, et al., studied students that were preparing to take graduate study entrance exams, such as the GRE, LSAT, and MCAT. They found that students’ journal entries recorded immediately before taking these historically stress-inducing tests followed a similar logical flow; where during the beginning of writing, participants would express fear or concern toward the test. However, through the course of writing their experiences down, participants would encourage themselves and ultimately cultivate hope in upcoming exams. As a result of this, those who journaled immediately before these tests reported a lower amount of anxiety, and a better test result.[41]

Studying environment[edit]

Studying can also be more effective if one changes their environment while studying. For example: the first time studying the material, one can study in a bedroom, the second time one can study outside, and the final time one can study in a coffee shop. The thinking behind this is that as when an individual changes their environment the brain associates different aspects of the learning and gives a stronger hold and additional brain pathways with which to access the information. In this context environment can mean many things; from location, to sounds, to smells, to other stimuli including foods. When discussing environment in regards to its effect on studying and retention Carey says “a simple change in venue improved retrieval strength (memory) by 40 percent.”[42] Another change in the environment can be background music; if people study with music playing and they are able to play the same music during test time they will recall more of the information they studied.[43] According to Carey “background music weaves itself subconsciously into the fabric of stored memory.”[44] This “distraction” in the background helps to create more vivid memories with the studied material.[44]

Analogies[edit]

Analogies can be a highly effective way to increase the efficiency of coding and long-term memory. Popular uses of analogies are often forming visual images that represent subject matter, linking words or information to one's self, and either imagining or creating diagrams that display the relationship between elements of complex concepts. A 1970 study done by Bower and Winzez found that as participants created analogies that had sentimentality or relevance to themselves as a unique individual, they were better able to store information as well as recall what had been studied. This is referred to as the Self-reference Effect. Adding to this phenomenon, examples that are more familiar an individual or that are more vivid or detailed are even more easily remembered. However, analogies that are logically flawed and/or are not clearly described can create misleading or superficial models in learners.[45]

Concept mapping[edit]

There is some support for the efficacy of concept mapping as a learning tool.[46]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Bremer, Rod (20 January 2016). The Manual: A Guide to the Ultimate Study Method (Second ed.). Fons Sapientiae Publishing. ISBN 978-0993496424.
  2. ^ "Study Skills" (PDF). weblearn.ox.ac.uk. July 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009.
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  6. ^ , Preston, Rah (1959). Teaching Study Habits and Skills, Rinehart. Original from the University of Maryland digitized August 7, 2006.
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External links[edit]

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