Three categories of Chinese characters
The three categories of the Chinese characters（chin. 三 书 说） are a modern categorization compared to the six traditional categories . They were first established in 1935 by Tang Lan （唐兰）. Chen Mengjia (陈梦 家) later developed his own three categories, which Qiu Xigui (裘锡圭) adopted, but also changed in part.
Background: criticism of the six categories
The term "liushu (chin. 六 书)" was most likely mentioned in Zhouli (chin. 周礼). It was said that the sons of nobility in Zhou Dynasty must learn six arts, namely five kinds of etiquette, six kinds of music, five kinds of archery, five kinds of riding, six kinds of writing, nine kinds of mathematics. But Zhouli did not explain what "six kinds of writing" actually means. The scholars in the Han Dynasty explained them as six categories of Chinese characters. Since the sum of six is determined beforehand, you have to build your theory within this framework. In Shuowen Jiezi, they are pictograms, simple ideograms, compound ideograms, phonograms, borrowing, and zhuanzhu. Zhuanzhu is difficult to translate into another language because no one in China can even explain what this term actually means to this day. Many scholars have their own opinions, but they are very different from one another. They are either completely different from the interpretation of Shuowen Jiezi or they do not interpret on the level of writing, but on the level of language. Qiu Xigui pointed out:
Today researchers of the Chinese script do not have to use this term. Without this term, we can also explain the structure of the scriptures well. Its valuable parts can be discussed in the appropriate area of scriptology or linguistics. Generally speaking, we do not need to have an endless discussion about the definition of this term.
Many characters blur the line between pictogram and simple ideogram. For example, 大 is originally a picture of a man extending his arms in opposite directions. But it means "big". In terms of shape, it should be assigned to a pictogram, while in terms of meaning it should be assigned to an ideogram, since “large” does not belong to things but to properties.
Many characters blur the line between pictogram and compound ideogram. There are two different meanings in scriptology. The difference lies in whether the meaning of the bearer of meaning relates to its form. In a narrower sense, the two can be used as a bearer of meaning (e.g. 尖 "tip": 小 "small" + 大 "large", the upper part of a tip is always smaller than the lower part) or form carrier (e.g. 凹 "downward arched ”, 凸“ arched upward ”). When two or more mold carriers are put together it is difficult to determine which category they belong to. For example: 
(oracle bones) “swim through the river”: This symbol consists of three parts: a right foot, a river and a left foot. One foot stands on one bank of this river, while the other on the other bank. It is through this image that the meaning "swimming through the river" is expressed. Some researchers share this symbol with the pictograms, while the others with the compound ideograms.
When borrowing, the line between the derived meaning (Chinese 引申 义) and the borrowed meaning （Chinese 假借 义） is indistinct. In Shuowen Jiezi , the term "borrowing" is explained as follows: there was originally no sign for these words. Other characters that sounded like these words were used to describe them. According to this principle, borrowing is limited only to borrowed meanings. But in Shuowen Jiezi this principle is not always carried out. For example 令 and 长 are assigned to this category. 令 means “official”, and its original meaning （Chinese. 本义） means “arrangement”. Since officials always order others, the derived meaning "official" arises. 长 means "long" and its original meaning is "old". In oracle bones, 长 is written as an old man with a stick ( 
). The new meaning “long” is derived from “old”. These two examples show the confusion of the two different types of meanings in Shuowen Jiezi .
Some characters are difficult to put in each category. For example 可 “can” and 叵 “cannot”. 叵 is built by turning 可 over.
The three categories of Tang Lan
In Introduction to Chinese Grammatology , Tang Lan criticized the traditional six categories and cited his own three categories. In Chinese grammatology , he expanded and explained his theory.
- 2.1 the three categories
- 2.1.1 Pictograms
Tang uses the term “pictograms” differently than Shuowen Jiezi. At Tang, the meaning of the characters in this category relates directly to their shapes. E.g. 一 “one”, 二 “two”, 三 “three”, 鳥 “bird” etc. Tang pointed out that all characters in this category must have the following three properties:
a. They have to be a whole, i. H. they consist of only one part.
b. Their meaning must be names.
c. Apart from their original meaning, they have no other meaning.
- 2.1.2 Ideograms
In Tang, the meanings of the characters in this category relate indirectly to their shapes. For example, 大 denotes a man who extends his arms in opposite directions. But it means "big". A picture of a tall man is used to express the abstract term “tall”. Unlike pictograms (e.g. a short line represents one) one cannot understand the sign as soon as one sees this shape. One has to think about the relationship between shape and meaning.
- 2.1.3 Phonograms
In Tang, this category is almost the same as that of Shuowen Jiezi.
- 2.2 The disadvantages of Tang's theory
Tang does not consider borrowing to be a category of Chinese characters because borrowing cannot create a new character. Chen Mengjia has criticized Tang's view. He pointed out that, despite the shape of the loan sign and the sign of origin, both are the same but have very different structures. For example, the symbol Zeichen originally denoted a special type of shovel. Since the was pronounced as the pronoun "he / she / it", the character for these abstract words was borrowed. The meaning “shoveling” relates to the shape, which is why 其 1 belongs to pictograms with this meaning. Since their form has no relation with the pronouns, 其 2 belongs to borrowings with this meaning. Regarding their different structures, we can say that 其 1 and 其 2 are two different characters.
Chen also finds it pointless to think of pictograms and ideograms as two different categories. Tang has said that the meanings of the pictograms must be names. But he thinks 一 “one” 二 “two” 〇 “round” also for pictograms. It's hard to say that “one” or “round” are names.
Qiu Xigui added some other drawbacks. For example, in Tang's theory there is no room for the characters put together by meaning carriers (as opposed to form carriers) because the pictograms and ideograms only (directly or indirectly) relate to the forms. Characters such as 尖 “tip” cannot be assigned to any category.
The three categories of Chen Mengjia and Qiu Xigui
As stated above, Chen finds the difference between the first two categories meaningless and considers the borrowing to be a category of its own. So he's merging the two and adding a new category.
| Tang Lan | Pictograms
(象形字) |
Ideograms
(象 意 字) |
Phonograms （形 声 字） | |
| Chen Mengjia | Pictograms
（象形字） |
Phonograms
（形 声 字） |
borrowing
（假借 字） |
|
Qiu Xigui has only changed one Chinese term (pictograms Chen: 象形, Qiu: 表 意). The two are essentially identical.
Qiu has also divided his three categories into many subgroups. The following are the main contents of his theory according to ' Outline of Grammatology' :
- 3.1 Pictograms （表 意 字）
- 3.1.1 Character imitating things （象 物 字）
The meanings of these characters relate to their shapes and denote things.
z. B. 首
"Head" 目
"Eye"
Exception:
a. The shapes only represent part of the thing.
z. B. 羊
"Sheep or goat" (only the head of a goat)
b. Complicated, thing-imitating characters （复杂 象 物 字 dem: In addition to the thing referred to, the shapes also represent other things that have a relationship with it.
z. B. 枼
"leaf" (besides leaves also the tree)
- 3.1.2. Characters with extra marks on the mimicking characters （指示 字）
A short line or one or more small dots are used as pointing signs and inserted into other characters that imitate things.
z. B. 本 "Root" (A short line is added to the lower part of the 木 "Tree" and denotes the root.)
- 3.1.3 Action-mimicking characters with formal properties of the thing-mimicking characters （象 物 字 式 的 象 事 字）
The meaning of these characters refers to their shapes, but denotes activities or properties.
z. B. 大 "large"
- 3.1.4 compound characters （会意 字）
This group is the same as the composite ideograms according to traditional classification.
- 3.1.4.1 figuratively composed characters （图 形式 会意 字）
z. B. 从 “follow” (人 “person” The meaning “follow” is denoted by one person following another.)
- 3.1.4.2 Characters using positions of components （利用 偏旁 间 位置 关系 的 会意 字）
This category of characters makes use of the assigned positions of the components to imply meaning.
z. B. 尖 "tip" (小 "small" set to 大 "large")
- 3.1.4.3 Body and organ combined characters （主体 和 器官 的 会意 字）
This category of characters is made up of two characters (characters and / or form carriers), each of which simulates a human / animal and a certain organ, and thus describes an action or a state with regard to the organ.
z. B. 臭 "Smell" (自 "Nose" 犬 "Dog" The dog's nose can depend on the smell.)
- 3.1.4.4 Components readable characters （偏旁 连读 成文 的 会意 字）
This category of characters consists of two (or more) characters that are read one after the other and thus produce or imply a compound meaning. z. B. 歪 "crooked" (不 "not" 正 "vertical" 不正: not vertical --à crooked)
- 3.1.4.5 Characters with the same repeated components （重复 同一 偏旁 而成 的 会意 字）
z. B. 林 "forest" (木 "tree" tree + tree + ... + tree = forest)
- 3.1.4.6 Other （其他 会意 字）
- 3.1.5. Characters with a formal change to encode a new meaning （变 体 字）
These characters are formed by changing the shape of another character.
z. B. 屰
"turn around" (It is derived from 大. As said above, 大
is painted as a man. If you turn this man upside down, the other character is created.)
- 3.2 Phonograms （形 声 字）
- 3.3 Borrowing （假借 字）
- 3.3.1 Borrowing without original characters （无 本 字 的 假借 字）
This group is almost the same as borrowing according to traditional classification.
- 3.3.2 Borrowing with original characters （有 本 字 的 假借 字）
In classical Chinese, this group is interpreted as Tongjia (chin. 通 假).
Individual evidence
- ↑ 保 氏 ： 掌 諫 王 惡 ， 而 養 國 子 以 道。 乃 教 之 六藝 ： 一 曰 五 禮 ， 二曰 六 六 樂 ， 三曰 五 射 ， 四曰 五 馭 ， 五曰 六 書 ， 六曰 九 數。 from: Zhouli, Diguan, Baoshi
- ↑ some well-known interpretations: 1. the direction of some of the characters changed (Dai Tong 戴 侗, Song Dynasty) 2. the relationship between radicals and characters (Jiang Sheng 江 声, Qing Dynasty) 3. synonyms (Duan Yucai 段玉裁 Qing Dynasty) 4. Characters that are articulated similarly and have the same meaning (Zhang Binglin 章炳麟 Qing Dynasty)
- ↑ 裘锡圭 《文字 学 概要》 北京 ： 商务印书馆 ， 2013．Qiú Xīguī: Wénzìxué Gàiyào. Běijīng: Shāngwù Yìnshūguǎn, 2013. Qiu Xigui: Outline of the grammatology. Beijing: The Commercial Press, 2013.
- ↑ The preface of Shuowen Jieyi is:假借者,本无其字,依声托事"令", "长"是也.it was originally not a sign of these words.. Other characters that sounded like these words were used to describe them. Ling and Chang belong to this category.
- ↑ 唐兰 《中国 文字 学》 上海 ： 上海 古籍 出版社 ， 2001．Táng Lán: Zhōngguó Wénzìxué. Shànghǎi: Shànghǎi Gǔjí Chūbǎnshè, 2001. Tang Lan: Chinese grammatology. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing Press, 2001.
- ↑ 陈梦 家 《殷墟 卜 辞 综述》 北京 ： 科学 出版社 ， 1956．Chén Mèngjiā: Yīnxū Bǔcí Zōngshù. Běijīng: Kēxué Chūbǎnshè, 1956. Chen Mengjia: Synopsis of the oracle inscriptions from the ruins of the Yin period. Beijing: Science Publishing House, 1956.