Ghadamsi

The ghadamès language is in the oasis of Ghadames on the western edge of Libya spoken Berber language . The place is called on Berber ʕademəs and in Arabic γdāməs . The Berber name of the language is awal n-ʕademəs 'language of Ghadames' . In European languages ​​they can be referred to as “Ghadamsi” (after the Arabic adjective for “belonging to Ghadames”). The language differs greatly from most other Berber languages ​​and is believed to be particularly archaic.

According to the system

Consonants

In Ghadamsi there are the following consonants:

	Labials	Dental	emphatic dentals	Palatal	Velare	Postvelare	Pharyngals	Glottal
voiceless plosives		t	ṭ		k	q
voiced plosives	b	d	ḍ	ǧ
voiceless fricatives	f	s	(ṣ)	š	(x)		(H)	(H)
voiced fricatives	β	z	ẓ	(ž)	γ		ʕ
Nasals	m	n

Then there are r, l, w, y. Occasionally other emphatic sounds such as ḷ or ṛ appear.

The sounds in brackets are rather rare and occur mainly in foreign Arabic words.

In comparison to other Berber languages, the following is striking:

• Preservation of a sound β which has been lost in almost all other Berber languages. The word for “night” is eβăḍ, while in most other Berber languages ​​it has been shortened to iḍ (etc.).
• ʕ often stands where the other languages ​​have γ. Nevertheless, the Ghadamsi also has a γ.

Vowels

The same vowel system is to be used for vowels as for the Tuareg , namely a system of seven vowels consisting of five full vowels (a, e, i, o, u), which can be spoken for about medium length, and two reduced vowels (ə, ă), which, in contrast, are to be spoken more briefly. This is the transcription by M. Kossmann, while an older transcription system is used in the Lanfry documentation.

The Ghadamsi here goes together with the Tuareg and differs from most of the other Berber languages, which have reduced the Urberber vowel system to a greater extent.

accent

The word accent is only inconsistently noted in the documentation and cannot be taken into account here. Probably it can fall on one of the last two syllables of the word. The accent is apparently distinctive in at least some cases (see below in the Locative section ). An approximate minimal pair is also áẓiḍ 'cock' versus aẓéḍ 'donkey' .

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns of Ghadamsi are more differentiated than those of German and differentiate the gender in the 2nd and 3rd person in the singular and plural.

	independent	suffix	Possessive suffix	Accusative suffix	Dative suffix
1. sg. "I"	wet	-i	-ənnuk	-i	-i
2. so. mask. "you"	šăǧǧ	-ək	-ənnăk	-šək	-ak
2. so. fem. "you"	šamm	-əm	-ənnăm	-came	-at the
3rd sg. mask. "he"	nitto	-əs	-ənnăs	-t	-as
3rd sg. fem. "she"	nittat	-əs	-ənnăs	-did	-as
1. pl. "we"	năkkănen	-năʕ	-ənnanăʕ	-anăʕ	-anăʕ
2. pl. mask. "her"	šəkwen	-wən	-ənnawən	-cum	-awən
2. pl. fem. "her"	šəkmaten	-əkmăt	-ənnăkmăt	-kmăt	-akmăt
3rd pl. mask. "she"	əntannen	-săn	-ənnasăn	-tăn	-asăn
3rd pl. fem. "she"	əntnaten	-əsnăt	-ənnăsnăt	-tənăt	-asnăt

The short suffixes are used after prepositions.

noun

genus

Like other Berber languages, Ghadamsi has the two grammatical genera masculine and feminine. Feminine nouns almost always begin with a prefix t- and usually also end in -t (the final -t can be missing after the stem on a vowel).

number

The Ghadamsi distinguishes the numbers singular and plural. The plural formation is quite irregular.

Most of the masculine nouns begin with a-, the feminine nouns begin with ta-. The a-prefix can be understood as a singular character. In the plural, it is usually omitted (occasionally, where the pronunciation requires it, a ə- occurs). The most common plural endings are -ăn for masculine and -en for feminine, with -en replacing the ending -t of the feminine singular. So the common scheme is this:

	Singular	Plural
masculine	a─	─ăn
feminine	ta─t	kill

Examples:

• awăll "eye" - wăllăn "eyes"
• taβenawt "date palm" - tβenawen "date palm"
• akawat "friend" - kawatăn "friends"
• aḍar "foot" - ḍarăn "feet"
• aẓăǧǧas "year" - ẓăǧǧasăn "years"
• amakan "place" - makanăn "places"
• anaẓar "rain" - naẓarăn "rains"
• asen "tooth" - senăn "teeth"

The singular prefix is ​​less often o-. This is also omitted in the plural:

• oβəǧǧan "rat" - βəǧǧanăn "rat"

However, nouns whose prefix does not change are also quite common. In some of the words the a- is stable and remains in the plural. If the singular starts with e, i, u or consonant, this initial sound is always retained in the plural:

• aškar "fingernail" - aškarăn "fingernail"
• tullezt (also spoken: tulless) "story" - tullezen "stories"
• aẓiḍ "cock" - aẓiḍăn "cocks"
• taẓiṭṭ (for taẓiḍt) "chicken" - taẓiḍen "chicken"
• allun "hole" - allunăn "holes"
• wăǧǧid "man" - wăǧǧidăn "men"
• aǧmar "horse" - aǧmarăn "horses"
• erəǧ "stone" - erəǧăn "stones"

If the stem ends in a vowel, the normal plural ending is difficult to add. In the following example, an -e of the stem merges with the -en of the plural ending:

• takəṭfet "ant" - tkəṭfen "ants"

More often, however, we find a plural ending -an in this case (only with masculine):

• izi "fly" - izan "fly"
• eḍe "dog" - eḍan
• azăle "song" - zălan "songs"
• iri "star" - iran "star"
• aflelo "onion" - flelan "onions"

The ending -an can also be found in some nouns with a consonant stem ending:

• aẓeḍ "(the) donkey" - ẓeḍan "(the) donkey"
• oǧărf "raven" - ǧărfan "raven"
• aẓur "root" - ẓuran "roots"

Or a -w- is inserted between the stem and the plural ending:

• amisi "(the) dinner" - misiwăn "(the) dinner"
• aβena "date" - βenawăn "dates"
• talta "woman" - taltawen "women"
• name "mouth" - mewăn "mouths"
• aməṭṭa "tear" - məṭṭawăn "tears"
• tali "(the) room" - taliwen "(the) room"

Some nouns use -awăn, -ewăn or -iwăn as a plural ending:

• daž "house" - dažiwăn "houses"
• eγăf "head" - eγăfawăn "heads"
• ener "lamp" - enerewăn "lamps"
• eβăḍ "night" - eβăḍawăn "nights"
• akorm "(the) back" - kormawăn "(the) back"
• elăm "animal skin" - elămawăn "animal skin"

Abdominal plurals are very common and difficult at the same time. The most common type of abutment is that in the plural the last stem syllable is given the vowel -a- (or -o-):

• tomărt "beard" - tomaren "beards"
• tawažett "(the) girl" - twažaten "(the) girl"
• aẓomăr "ram" - ẓomarăn "ram"
• wăššen "jackal" - wəššanăn "jackals"

In this case, the plural ending is usually omitted:

• amənzu "beginning" - mənzay "beginnings"
• tasadəlt "egg" - təsadal "egg"
• azănkəḍ "gazelle" - zənkaḍ "gazelles"
• taǧărẓiẓt "hare" - təǧərẓaẓ "hare"
• takaṭṭust "cat" - tkuṭṭas "cats"
• anaful "sack" - nufal "sacks"
• tamiḍăzt (also spoken: tamiḍăss) "scissors" - tmiḍaz "scissors"
• tonest "(the) key" - tniso "(the) key"
• taββurt "door" - tβuro "doors"
• aǧaḍiḍ "bird" - ǧəḍaḍ "birds"

The following examples without an ending, in which the singular already contains -a- / -o- and therefore no ablaut is visible, probably also belong here:

• tafunast "cow" - tfunas "cows"
• tənzart "nose" - tənzar "nose"
• tăẓrot "(the) mirror" - təẓro "(the) mirror"

Another type of ablaut combines a ə-vocalization of the stem with the plural ending -an:

• talălle "thread" - tələlwan "thread"
• tamada "garden" - tmədwan "gardens"
• aḍalis "lip" - ḍəlsan "lips"
• tazara "rope" - təzərwan "rope"

Some examples of other types of abutments:

• tawaǧe "bread" - twəǧǧiwen "bread"
• tanut "(the) fountain" - tunen "(the) fountain"
• tarwa "child" - tariwen "children"
• tamăksa "melon" - təməksiwen "melons"
• asăf "day" - asfiwăn "days"
• tamanăḥt "(the) living room" - tmunăḥ "(the) living room"

Occasionally a -k- disappears in the plural:

• aḍəkkəd "(the) finger" - ḍuḍan "(the) finger
• tokəlt "palm leaf" - tilo "palm leaves"

Some nouns show a doubling of consonants in the plural:

• aγil "arm" - γallăn "arms"
• ofəs "hand" - făssăn "hands"
• oǧəm "heart" - ǧămmăn "heart"
• aḷăm "camel" - ḷămman "camels"
• ofəd "(the) knee" - făddăn "(the) knee"
• esəm "ear" - sămmăn "ears"

The following words form their plural from a completely different stem:

• anṭfal "boy" - əddrari "boy"
• awadəm "human" - mădden "people"
• teʕaṭ "goat" - wəlle "goats"

Nouns of Arabic origin may occasionally keep their Arabic plural form:

• ălbəḥər "sea" - lăbḥurat "seas"

Finally, there is the option to form the plural simply by placing a prefix ənd- in front of the singular. This is not uncommon and is typically used for nouns that have an unusual form (not a normal prefix) or are borrowed from:

• bab "(the) owner" - ənd-bab "(the) owner"
• ălxəruf "lamb" - ənd-ălxəruf "lambs"
• ălmudu "mosque" - ənd-ălmudu "mosques"
• kara "thing" - ənd-kara "things"
• alătma "sister" - ənd-alătma "sisters"
• aqăllal "(the) potter" - ənd-aqăllal "(the) potter"
• aḍo "wind" - ənd-aḍo "wind"

Special form after prepositions

There is hardly any equivalent to our cases in Ghadamsi. However, plural forms (and only these) can change their form, more precisely their initial sound, after prepositions. The change is the addition of an i- prefix. This is really mandatory only after the genitive preposition n . Examples:

• madden "people" - n-imadden "the people"
• wăǧǧidăn "men" - ʕur iwăǧǧidăn ~ ʕur wăǧǧidăn "with the men"

Demonstrative suffixes

Demonstrative suffixes can be added to the noun that congruent with the noun in the number:

	Singular	Plural
"This (near)"	-O	-i
"That (far)"	-ănn	-inn
"This (named)"	-e	-id

Examples:

• anṭfal-o "this boy"
• tawažett-o "this girl"
• əddrari-yi "these boys"
• twažaten-i "these girls"
• anṭfal-e “this (named) boy; boy"
• eḍe-ye “this (named) dog; the dog"
• talta-ye “this (named) woman; the woman"
• wăǧǧid-ănn "that man"
• talta-yănn "that woman"
• wăǧǧidăn-inn "those men"

The suffixes -e and -id are very common and functionally closer to our definite article.

Possession

The genitive construction of Ghadamsi has the structure possessum - preposition n - possessor:

• bab n-tamada "the owner of the garden" (tamada "garden")
• taββurt n-ammas "the door of the middle = the middle door"
• arənnəβ n-aman "addition of water"
• taltawen n-ʕademəs "the women of Ghadames"

The connection of hal with the following genitive (plural or singular) expresses our "much":

• mădden "people" - hal n-imădden "many people" (literally: "a lot of people")
• awal "word" - hal n-awal "many words"

The pronominal possessor is expressed by the possessive suffixes mentioned above:

• ofəs "hand" - ofəs-ənnuk "my hand"
• daž "house" - daž-ənnuk "my house"
• əddrari "children" - əddrari-nnăm "your children"
• tadiss "belly" - tadiss-ənnăs "his belly"
• dădda "father" (also: "my father") - dădda-nnăs "his father"

If the possessum has a plural ending -ăn, it can optionally be blended:

• wăllăn “eyes” - wăllăn-ənnăs “his eyes”, but also: wăllănnăs

A few family names form special forms with shortened suffixes, the one with Possessor of the 1st sg. particularly irregular is:

• imma "my mother" - may-k "your mother" - may-s "his mother" - mayə-tnăʕ "our mother" - may-twən "your mother" - may-tsăn "her (pl.) mother"

verb

Personnel affixes

The verb is conjugated with prefixes and suffixes that denote the grammatical subject. The affixes are basically the same for all verbs and most tenses. Only the future tense has the peculiarity that no suffixes are used in the singular.

Depending on the tense, either ă or ə (or no vowel at all) is in front of the stem. The prefix of the 3rd mask. In the former case is y- (i.e. yă-), in the latter case i-.

The following table shows the personal affixes as well as an example of their application in three tenses of the verb for "sow":

	Affixes	"Sow", aorist	"Sow", simple past	"Sow", future tense
1st sg.	─ăʕ	ăkrəzăʕ	əkrăzăʕ	d əkrăz
2.sg.	t─ət	tăkrəzət	təkrăzət	ət təkrăz
3.sg.mask.	y / i─	yăkrəz	ikrăz	(ə) d ikrăz
3.sg.fem.	t─	tăkrəz	təkrăz	ət təkrăz
1.pl.	n─	năkrəz	nəkrăz	ən nəkrăz
2.pl.mask.	t─ăm	tăkrəzăm	təkrăzăm	ət təkrăzăm
2.pl.fem.	t─măt	tăkrəzmăt	təkrăzmăt	ət təkrăzmăt
3.pl.mask.	─ăn	ăkrəzăn	əkrăzăn	d əkrăzăn
3.pl.fem.	─năt	ăkrəznăt	əkrăznăt	d əkrăznăt

The forms of the durative are analogous, e.g. 1.sg. kărrăzăʕ, 2.sg. təkărrăzət, 3.sg. mask. ikărrăz, 1st pl. nkărrăz.

Tempora

The main tenses of the verb are as follows:

• Aorist, which can be seen as the basic form of the verb. The aorist is often used as a follow-up form in Ghadamsi and continues the tense of a preceding verbal form.
• Preterite. In some cases, the German translation also corresponds to the present tense.
• Futur, usually together with a particle d (before t and n is assimilated, in rare cases is also da ) is used.
• Durative for expressing straight or repeated actions, often functioning as the equivalent of our present tense. The particle al can precede the durative in order to underline the character of an ongoing action.
• Durative 2. This never occurs in isolation, but an imperative and a negated future tense are derived from it. The durative 2 is formed according to the same principles as the normal durative, but mostly has a different vocalization. It is not documented for all verbs. Forms are only cited here insofar as they are documented, even if many of the missing forms could easily be formed analogously.

Root forms: Verbs with an aorist stem ending in ă-

Here the formation of the above tenses is demonstrated. All forms are in the 3rd pers. so called mask., i.e. with the prefix y- / i-, quoted.

A very common group of verbs has three stem consonants, whereby the stem is identical in the past and future tense, begins with a consonant and contains the vowel -ă-. The aorist does not contain a -ă- inside, but a ă- at the beginning of the stem. The durative doubles the middle consonant:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
roast meat	yăknəf	iknăf	d iknăf	ikănnăf	ikənnəf
dig	yăβrək	iβrăk	d iβrăk	iβărrăk
sow, work the land	yăkrəz	ikrăz	d ikrăz	ikărrăz	ikərrəz
to remember	yăktət	iktăt	d ictat	ikăttăt
stand	yăβdəd	iβdăd	d iβdăd	iβăddăd
search	yăftək	iftăk	d iftăk	ifăttăk
wear	yătkəl	itkăl	d itkăl	ităkkăl

Verbs of this type emphasize the stem syllable that contains -ă-, ie: yắknəf "and he roasts (Aor.)", Iknắf "he roasted", əknắfăʕ "I roasted", d iknắf "he will roast".

If the first two consonants are identical, there can be no further doubling in the durative, and the durative is instead formed with a prefix tt-:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
get up	yăkkər	ikkăr	d ikkăr	ittăkkăr	ittəkkər
go down	yăǧǧəz	iǧǧăz	d iǧǧăz	ittăǧǧăz
Life	yăddər	iddăr	d iddăr	ittăddăr
knowledge	yăssən	issăn	d issăn	ittăssăn

A group of verbs with only two consonants forms the durative either by doubling the first consonant, which is then followed by the vowel -a-, or again with the prefix tt-:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
be valid	yăẓəl	iẓăl	d iẓăl	ittəẓəl
grind	yăẓəḍ	iẓăḍ	d iẓăḍ	iẓẓaḍ
go away	yăfəl	ifăl	d ifăl	iffal
throw	yăǧər	iǧăr	d iǧăr	iǧǧar	iǧǧir

Another group of verbs has a constant vowel o- in place of the first consonant. These also form the durative on tt-:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
to build	yosək	yosăk	d yosăk	ittosăk
wrinkles	yoḍəβ	yoḍăβ	d yoḍăβ	ittoḍăβ
help	yoləl	yolăl	d yolăl	ittolăl
write	yorəβ	yorăβ	d yorăβ	ittorăβ	ittirəβ

Then there is a group of verbs with variable starting vowels. In the aorist, this is a-, which could be seen as an expansion of ă-, in the past and future tense it is u-, the durative is tta-:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
enter	yatəf	yutăf	d yutăf	ittatăf	ittitəf
produce	yarəw	yurăw	d yurăw	ittarăw
send	yazən	yuzăn	d yuzăn	ittazăn

In connection with certain consonants, phonetic peculiarities arise. If the first consonant is r, l, (occasionally :) n, γ, x, ʕ or ḥ, then not only the stem of the past tense, but also that of the aorist and future tense begins with ă-, so it is, for example, yăxdăm " he worked “instead of * ixdăm.

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
work	yăxdəm	yăxdăm	d yăxdăm	ixăddăm
to lend	yărḍəl	yărḍăl	d yărḍăl	irăṭṭăl
counting	yăḥsəb	yăḥsăb	d yăḥsăb	iḥăssăb

If the last consonant is ʕ, an expected vowel eigentlich sounds like ă in its neighborhood:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
go out	yăffăʕ	iffăʕ	d iffăʕ	ittăffăʕ
to buy	yăsăʕ	isăʕ	d isăʕ	issaʕ
to take	yaβăʕ	yuβăʕ	d yuβăʕ	ittaβăʕ

If the last or penultimate consonant is y, the connection əy / yə is implemented as i and the connection ăy / yă as e:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2	root
frighten	yăddi	idde	d idde	ittădde	ittəddi	ddy
to go up	yăni	yăne	d yăne	innay ~ ittăne	inniy ~ ittəni	ny
hide	yăkif	ikef	d ikef	ittăkef		kyf
to be awake	yăzǧi	izǧe	d izǧe	izăǧǧe	izəǧǧi	z-ǧ-y

Finally, verbs with different characteristics:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2	comment
arrive	yawəḍ	iwăḍ	d iwăḍ	ittawăḍ		like type yatəf "enter", but with -w- instead of * -uw-
beat	yăwət	iwăt	d iwăt	ikkot		irregular durative
see	yălləm	illăm	d illăm	izăllăm		The verb is regular if one assumes the stem is zlm and -zl- is assimilated in direct contact with -ll-.

Root forms: Verbs with a preterital stem ending in ă-

The verbs discussed so far had an initial ă- in the aorist stem. There is another group of verbs in which the simple past starts with ă- rather than the aorist. In this case the future tense stem is identical to the aorist stem. All verbs with more than three consonants belong here. These usually form their durative on tt-:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
be blind	illəḍhəs	yălləḍhăs	d illəḍhəs	ittələḍhəs
sleep	inəddəm	yănəddăm	d inəddəm	ittənəddăm
speak	isməǧǧi	yăsməǧǧe	d ismăǧǧe	ismăǧǧe	isməǧǧi
dream	iββərǧ	yăββərǧ	d iββərǧ	ittəβərǧ
tremble	ikkərkər	yăkkərkăr	d ikkərkər	ittəkərkər

A number of verbs that have a vowel -a-, -i- or -u- in the stem interior also belong here. This can either remain stable in all tenses or vary (simple past -u-, otherwise -a-; or simple past -e-, otherwise -i-):

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
pray	imud	yămud	d imud	ittəmud	ittəmud
be thirsty	iffad	yăffud	d iffad	ittəfad	ittəfad
be hungry	illaẓ	yălluẓ	d illaẓ	ittəlaẓ
rejoice	iruǧ	yăruǧ	d iruǧ	ittəruǧ
to dance	idiz	yădez	d idiz	ittədiz
be dry	iqqar	yăqqur	d iqqar	ittəγar	ittəγar
to be overripe	ifax	yăfax	d ifax	ittəfax

Personal prefixes in the durative on tt-

With the durative forms on tt-, the following special features of the conjugation must be observed:

• If there is no prefix, only a simple t- is spoken at the beginning of the word.
• In the 3rd pers. so called fem. we find the expected tətt-.
• In the 2nd person, however, together with the prefix t- there is an initial ətt-.

For example: tăkkărăʕ “I get up”, əttăkkărət “you get up”, ittăkkăr “he gets up”, təttăkkăr “she gets up”, əttăkkărăm “you get up”, tăkkărăn “they get up”.

Verbs with a variable final vowel

Many common verbs have a variable final vowel that varies within personal conjugation. The most important type of this, which occurs only in verbs with an aorist stem ending in ă-, shows the following distribution:

• No vowel final in the aorist singular and 1st plural, future singular and 1st plural, durative singular and 1st plural
• -o in the past tense 3rd sg. and in the full plural, future tense 2./3. Plural, durative 2nd / 3rd Plural
• -i in the Aorist 2./3. Plural
• -e in the past tense 1./2. Singular

It should also be noted with these verbs that the future tense in the singular, unlike normal verbs, uses personal endings.

Here are the most important forms of the verb for "listen":

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
1st sg.	ăslăʕ	əsleʕ	d əslăʕ	săllăʕ
2.sg.	tăslət	təslet	ət təslət	təsăllət
3.sg.mask.	yăsl	islo	d isl	isăll
3.sg.fem.	tăsl	təslo	ət təsl	təsăll
1.pl.	năsl	nəslo	ən nəsl	nəsăll
2.pl.mask.	tăslim	təslom	ət təslom	təsăllom
3.pl.mask.	ăslin	əslon	d əslon	săllon

The following verbs belong to this group:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
to have	-	ilo	-	-	-
Listen	yăsl	islo	d isl	isăll
laugh	yăḍs	iḍso	d iḍs	iḍăss
love, want	yăβr	iβro	d iβr	iβărr

And also with the special feature mentioned above because of the first consonant:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
bring	yăbb	yăbbo	d yăbb	ittăbăbb
read	yăʕr	yăʕro	d iʕăr	iʕărr
to get dressed	yăls	yălso	d yăls	ilăss
kill	yănn	yănno	d yănn	inăqq
hand back	yărr	yărro	d yărr	ittărr

As well as the following verbs with an irregular durative:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
eat	yăšš	iššo	d išš	ittătt
give	yăkf	ikfo	d ikf	iβăkk	iβəkk
to let	yăǧǧ	iǧǧo	d iǧǧ	ittăǧǧ
drink	yăsw	iswo	d isw	isăss
to do; put, put, lay	yăǧ (3rd pl. ăǧin)	iǧo (3rd pl.ǧon)	d iǧ (3rd pl. d əǧon)	ittăǧǧ	ittəǧǧ

Then there are verbs that also have a variable starting vowel:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
Find	yaf	yufo	d yuf	ittaf
to open	yar	yuro	d yur	ittar	ittir

A number of verbs with the preterital stem ending in ă- show forms with a similar distribution, namely:

• -i in the Aorist 2./3. Plural
• -o in the other tenses 2./3. Plural
• no final vowel in the singular and the 1st pl. of all tenses

This concerns, for example:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
stay, sit down	iqqim (3rd pl. əqqimin)	yăqqim (3rd pl. ăqqimon)	d iqqim (3rd pl. d əqqimon)	ittəγim (3rd pl. təγimon)
stay	itumm (3rd pl. tummin)	yătumm (3rd pl. ătummon)	?	ittətum
remain silent	iffəss (3rd pl. əffəssin)	yăffəss (3rd pl. ăffəsson)	d iffăss (3rd pl. əffăsson)	ittăfăss (3rd pl. tăfăsson)	ittəfəss
to sell	izzənz (3rd pl.zzənzin)	yăzzənz (3rd pl. ăzzənzon)	d izzənz (3rd pl. d əzzənzon)	izzənz (3.pl. zzənzon)
to hide oneself	ikənn (3rd pl. kənnin)	yăkənn (3rd pl. ăkənnon)	d ikənn (3rd pl. d kənnon)	ittəkənn (3rd pl. təkənnon)

A third type of conjugation with a variable final vowel, which also only occurs in verbs with a preterital stem ending in ă-, shows the following distribution:

• -u in the aorist, future and durative
• -e in the past tense 1./2. Singular
• -a in the past tense 3rd sg. and in the whole plural

These verbs also use personal endings in the singular of the future tense.

As an example, the most important forms of the verb for "agree":

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative
1st sg.	ərḍuʕ	ărḍeʕ	d ərḍuʕ	rəṭṭuʕ
2.sg.	tərḍut	tărḍet	ət tərḍut	truely
3.sg.mask.	irḍu	yărḍa	d irḍu	irəṭṭu
3.sg.fem.	tərḍu	tărḍa	ət tərḍu	tərəṭṭu
1.pl.	nərḍu	nărḍa	ən nərḍu	nərəṭṭu
2.pl.mask.	tərḍum	tărḍam	ət tərḍum	tərəṭṭum
3.pl.mask.	ərḍun	ărḍan	d ərḍun	run

Likewise inflect about:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2
kick off	ibdu	yăbda	d ibdu	ibəddu
think mean	ilmu	yălma	d ilmu	iləmmu
fall	yuḍu	yuḍa	d yuḍu	ittuḍu
to sing	iγənnu	yăγənna	d iγənnu	ittəγənnu
to forget	ittu	yătta	d ittu	ittəttu
agree	irḍu	yărḍa	d irḍu	irəṭṭu	irăṭṭu

Irregular verbs

Finally, a few verbs should be mentioned that cannot be put into any of the groups mentioned so far:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative	Durative 2	comment
exist, be	ili (3rd place ilin)	illa (3rd place əllan)	d ili (3rd pl. d ilin)	ittili (3rd pl.tilin)		irregular change -ili- (aorist) vs. -lla- (simple past)
to fill	iṭkur (3rd pl.əṭkurăn)	iṭkar (3rd place əṭkarăn)	d iṭkur (3rd pl. d əṭkurăn)	iḍəkkur	iḍəkkur	unusual vocalization scheme
go	yawas (1st sg. awiʕas, 3rd pl. awinas)	iwas (1.sg. weʕas, 3.pl. wenas)	d iwas (1.sg. d weʕas, 3.pl. d wenas)	ittawas (1.sg. taweʕas, 3.pl. tawenas)	ittiwas	all forms include a suffix -as; unusual vowel abbreviation
say	yăn (3rd place ănin)	inna (3rd place ənnan)	d yăn (3rd pl. d ănin)	iqqar (3rd pl. əqqaron)	iqqir	similar to "exist"; Duratively formed by another tribe
to die	yămmət (3rd pl. ămmətăn)	yămmut (3rd pl. ămmutăn)	d immăt (3rd pl. d əmmătăn)	ittămăttăt (3rd pl. tămăttătăn)		Vocalization scheme and durative unusual
ask for advice	yăšawăr	išiwər	d išawăr	ittăšawăr		unusual vocalization scheme

Secondary forms of the 1st person plural

In addition to the normal personnel form of the 1st pers. Pl. With a prefix n- there are two extended forms that also have a suffix -ăt (masculine) or -măt (feminine). Verbs with a variable final vowel have the same final vowel as in the 2nd and 3rd person plural. So:

• năkrəz, năkrəzăt, năkrəzmăt "we sow (aorist)"
• năsl, năslit, năslimăt "we hear (aorist)"
• nəslo, nəslot, nəslomăt "we heard"

The extended forms are used when several addressed persons are explicitly included, that is, “we” stands for “I + you”. The gender refers to the people addressed. Consequently, for example, a man who speaks to several women uses the form in -măt: "we (= I + you women)".

imperative

There is a simple and a durative imperative. The simple imperative (singular) consists of the aorist stem without personal affixes:

• mud "pray!"
• ăknəf "fry!"
• ăkf "give!"
• orəβ "write!"

A plural is formed using the endings -ăt (masculine) or -măt (feminine):

• ăǧər “throw!” - ăǧərăt / ăǧərmăt “throw!”
• ăzǧi “be awake!” - ăzǧiyăt / ăzǧimăt “be awake!”

Verbs with a variable final vowel show a vowel before the plural ending, always either -o or -u (not -a or -i):

• uḍut "falls!" (Aorist yuḍu)
• afot "finds!" (Aorist yaf)
• ăkfot "give!" (aorist yăkf)
• ănut "says!" (Aorist yăn)
• ərḍut "agrees!" (aorist irḍu)
• ăǧot / ăǧomăt "does!" (Aorist yăǧ)

Irregular imperatives are:

• qem "stay !; sit down! "(Aorist iqqim)
• făss "silent!" (aorist iffəss)
• osək "take!" (aorist yaβăʕ "take")

The durative imperative is formed with the stem of the durative 2. It expresses a command that is not only momentary but also generally valid. The durative imperative is not used by all verbs. Examples:

• təmud "pray (usually)!"
• can "fry (usually)!"
• βəkk "give (usually)!"
• tirəβ "write (usually)!"
• zəǧǧi "be (usually) awake!"

The same plural endings can be added here:

• əǧǧir "throw (usually)!" - əǧǧirăt / əǧǧirmăt "throw (usually)!"

Optional

The optative is a desired form that is only used in the 1st and 3rd person because the imperative occurs for the 2nd person. It consists of the aorist + a suffix (n) et + if necessary the personal suffix of the 1st person. (no suffix in the 3rd person pl.!). Example:

1st sg. "I may sow"	ăkrəz (n) etăʕ
3.sg.mask. "May he sow"	yăkrəznet
3.sg.fem. "May she sow"	tăkrəznet
1.pl. "We like to sow"	năkrəz (n) et
3.pl. "They may sow"	ăkrəznet

A variable final vowel is the same as in the plural forms of the aorist:

• əqqiminetăʕ "may I stay", iqqiminet "may he stay"
• afinetăʕ "I may find", yafinet "he may find"
• ăslinetăʕ "I may hear", yăslinet "May he hear"
• ərḍunetăʕ "I may agree", irḍunet "He may agree"

There is also a durative optative formed from the stem of the durative 2:

• əsməǧǧinetăʕ "I may (usually) speak", isməǧǧinet "He may (usually) speak"

participle

The Ghadamsi has a so-called participle, which can be formed from the preterital stem, the durative stem or the future tense using the following affixes:

mask. sg.	i─ăn
fem. sg.	t─ăt
Plural	─nin

However, there is a tendency to change the form of the mask. to be used as a standard form for all genera and numbers.

Examples:

• aḷamm-e ifalăn "the camel that went away"
• taḷamt-e təfalăt "the female camel who went away"
• ḷamman-id falnin "the camels that went away"
• ofəs iβăkkăn "a hand that gives" (durative)
• mădden da kfonin "the people who will give" (future tense)

In verbs with a variable final vowel, the -ă- of the participle is absorbed by the final vowel:

• ikfon "who gave"

adjective

In Ghadamsi, adjectives are conjugated in a similar way to verbs, but show some peculiarities. First of all, some stem forms:

	Aorist	preterite	Future tense	Durative
be / become small	imtit (3.pl. mtităn)	măttit (pl. măttitit)	d imtit (3.pl. d imtităn)	ittəmtit
be / become big	imqor	măqqor	d imqor	ittəmqor
be / become long	izzəǧrət	zəǧrut	d izzəǧrət	ittəzəǧrət
be / become black	isḍəf	săṭṭăf	d isḍəf	ittəsḍəf
be / become white	imləl	mălləl (pl. măllulit)	d imləl	ittəmləl

The past tense of such words has special personal affixes that consist only of suffixes. As an example, the past tense of "small become / be":

	Affixes	"small"
1st sg.	─ăʕ	măttităʕ
2.sg.	─ət	măttitət
3.sg.mask.	─	măttit
3.sg.fem.	─ăt	măttităt
full plural	─it	măttitit

The past tense is the form that normally forms the equivalent of predicative adjectives in German:

• wəlle-yi măllulit "these goats are white" (actually: "... have become white")

When such adjectives are used as an attribute, they must take the form of the participle. This only has suffixes, but no prefixes like normal verbs:

• măttităn "small" (mask.)
• măttităt "small" (fem.)
• măttitnin "small" (plural)

The attribute is behind the noun:

• wăǧǧid zəǧrutăn "a tall (literally: long) man"
• wăǧǧidăn zəǧrutnin "great men"

The word for "another" does not use the complete inventory of forms of other adjectives / adjective verbs, but has forms that can also be understood as participle forms:

• iḍăn (mask.) - iḍăt (fem.) - ḍnin (pl.)

Example:

• taẓiṭ iḍăt "another chicken"

locative

A locative ending -i expresses the place or the direction:

• daž "house" - daži "in the house; into the house"
• tamanaḥt "living room" - tamanaḥti "in the living room"
• tamurt "earth" - tamurti "on earth"
• eβăḍ "night" - eβăḍi "in the night"

In some cases no -i is added, but the vowel of the last syllable is colored. This applies particularly to ă, but sometimes also a, which are recolored to e:

• γazăr "pit" - γazer "in the pit"
• făssăn "hands" - făssăn "in the hands"
• allunăn "holes" - allunen "in the holes"
• aman "water" - amen "in the water"

If the noun ends in a vowel, in some cases the ending -i is added with a transitional sound -y-:

• ofa "fire" - ofayi "in fire; into the fire "

In other cases the appended -i is not visible, but the word accent shifts to the final vowel:

• tamáda "garden" - tamadá "in the garden"
• almúdu "mosque" - almudú "in the mosque"
• tamasna "desert" - tamasná "in the desert"
• táli "room" - talí "in the room"

In combination with possessive suffixes, special forms result:

• daž-ənnuk "my house" - daž-ənnuken "in my house"
• daž-ənnăk "your house" - daž-ənnek "in your house"
• tadiss-ənnăs "his stomach" - tadiss-ənnes "in his stomach"
• tamada-nnawən "your garden" - tamada-nnawin "in your garden"

In the case of a genitive connection, the locative suffix appears at the very end:

• daž n-ălmăṭfalăt "House of Youth" - daž n-ălmăṭfalet "In the House of Youth"

The locative suffix is ​​not compatible with demonstrative suffixes. In this case, the locative suffix is ​​replaced by one of the words da "here" or the "there":

• daž "house" - daž-i "in the house", but:
• daž-o "this house" - daž-o da "in this house" (literally: "this house - here")

prepositions

A selection of common prepositions:

• i "(dative), to"
• dəg "in"
• s "from ... her; with (instrumental) "
• d "with"
• ʕaf "on"
• ʕur "at"
• zdat "before"
• addo "under"

Prepositions can be followed by nouns or personal suffixes. Some prepositions do not show any special features before personal suffixes:

• zdat-i "before me" - zdat-ək "before you"
• ʕaf-əs "on him"

Some prepositions have a different stem before the suffix:

• do-s "in him" (from dəg)
• ddid-əs "with him" (from d)
• addaw-s "under him" (from addo)

The preposition i can be combined with the locative to express the direction. The preposition s has to be combined (in both meanings) with the locative:

• wăllăn "eyes" - s-wăllen "with the eyes"

negation

The negation takes place in different ways depending on the tense.

preterite

The past tense is usually negated by ak :

• yămut "he prayed" - ak yămut "he did not pray"
• iṭkar "he filled" - ak iṭkar "he did not fill"
• yăffəss "he was silent" - ak yăffəss "he was not silent"
• izǧe "he was awake" - ak izǧe "he was not awake"

With most verbs, however, there is also a change in the verbal form. A -ă- of the last stem syllable always becomes -e- when negated:

• yutăf "he entered" - ak yutef "he did not enter" - ak utefăʕ "I did not enter"
• issăn "he knows" - ak issen "he doesn't know" - ak ssenăʕ "I don't know"
• iknăf "he fried" - ak iknef "he didn't fry"
• yorăβ "he wrote" - ak yoreβ "he did not write"
• ikkăr "he got up" - ak ikker "he didn't get up"
• iǧăr "he threw" - ak iǧer "he did not throw"

Furthermore, the final -a and -o become -e:

• ikfo "he gave" - ​​ak ikfe "he did not give"
• illa "he is" - akalian "he is not; There is not"
• yuro "he opened" - ak yure "he did not open"
• inna "he said" - ak inne "he didn't say"
• yărḍa "he agreed" - ak yărḍe "he did not agree"
• iǧo "he did" - ak iǧe "he did not"

As an alternative, the negation awas is available, according to which the normal preterital form is used:

• awas utăfăʕ "I did not enter" (instead of ak utefăʕ "I did not enter")

Durative

The durative is negated with the formula ad + durativ + ənte :

• ad ikănnăf ənte "he does not fry"
• ad tatăfăʕ ənte "I will not enter"

Future tense

There are several alternatives available as a negated future tense:

(1) ak + durative 2:

• ak titəfăʕ "I will not enter"
• ak iβəkk "he will not give"

(2) ak da + future tense:

• ak da iknăf "he will not fry"
• ak da ikf "he will not give"
• ak da yur "he won't open"

(3) awas + durative:

• awas tatăfăʕ "I will not enter"

imperative

The imperative is negated by wăl followed by the stem of the durative:

• wăl kărrăz "don't sow!"
• wăl əqqar "don't say!"
• wăl tatăf "do not enter!"

participle

The negated participle is formed as follows. We use wăl as a negation . The suffix that would normally be expected on the participle is attached to this. The verb is given the prefix of the participle, but not the suffix. If it is in the past tense, it experiences the same vowel umlaut as verbs in the past tense. Examples:

• wăl-ăn ifel "who did not go away" (from ifăl "he went away)
• wăl-ăt təfel "that did not go away"
• wăl-nin ifel "who did not go away"

Non-verbal sentence

Like the durative, non- verbal clauses can be negated with ad ... ənte :

• ad năšš ənte "it's not me"

Object suffixes

Accusative

The pronominal object is expressed using suffixes listed in the Personal Pronouns section above, which are usually attached to the verb. Examples:

• iwăt-i "he hit me"
• ăwtăʕ-t "and I'll beat him" (aorist)
• itkăl-t "he took him"
• ăšš-ət "eat it!"
• əssănnăt-t "they (fem.pl.) know it"
• yaβăʕ-tăt "he took her (fem.sg.)"
• iṭkar-tăt "he filled her (fem.sg.)"
• ăḥsăb-tăn "they counted them (pl.)"
• ăǧin-tăn "and they do it (pl.)" (aorist)

Special features arise when the suffix directly follows a verbal stem of such a verb that has a variable final vowel of the type Ø ~ i (aorist) / e ~ o (past tense). If the suffix follows such a verb in the aorist or imperative, an additional -t- appears. H. from -t "him" becomes - (ə) tt, from -tăt "she (fem.)" becomes - (ə) ttăt, from -tăn "she (pl.)" becomes - (ə) ttăn, from -kăm "Dich (fem.)" Becomes - (ə) tkăm. However, the suffixes -i “me” and -anăʕ “us” remain unchanged. Examples:

• yăǧǧ-ətt "and he lets him" (aorist)
• yăǧǧ-əttăt "and he lets her (fem.sg.)" (aorist)
• yăǧǧ-ətšək "and he leaves you" (aorist)
• yăǧǧ-ətkum "and he leaves you" (aorist)
• ăǧǧ-əttăn "let them (pl.)!"
• yăšš-ətt "and he eats it" (aorist)
• yăǧ-əttăt "and he does it (fem.sg.)" (aorist)

The stem of such verbs usually ends in -o in the absolute final tense. If an object suffix is ​​added, the -o- is replaced by -e-, and the form mentioned follows with an additional -t-. Hence -t “him” becomes -ett, -tăt “she (fem.)” Becomes -ettăt, -tăn “she (pl.)” Becomes -ettăn, and -kăm “you (fem.)” Becomes -etkăm. In the first person it is again only -i "me" and -anăʕ "us". Examples:

• tufo "she found", but: tuf-ett "she found him"
• iššo "he ate", but: išš-ettăn "he ate them (pl.)"
• tăbbo "she brought", but: tăbb-etnăt "she brought her (pl.fem.)"
• iβro "he loves" (past tense), but: iβr-etkăm "he loves you (fem.)", iβr-ettăt "he loves her"

Dative

The suffixes for the dative object are also usually appended to the verb:

• ănăʕ-as "and I tell him" (aorist)

If the verb finishes with a vowel, depending on the verb class, either the finale vowel is uttered or a sliding sound -y- is inserted:

• tăbbo "she brought", but: tăbb-as "she brought him"
• inna "he said", but: inna-yas "he told him", inna-yawən "he told you"

The dative suffix comes before the accusative suffix:

• tăbb-as-t "she brought him (-t) him (-as-)"
• iǧ-i-tăt "he did it (-tăt) me (-i-)"
• ǧeʕ-am-t "I did it for you"
• ikf-asnăt-tnăt "he gave them (fem.pl.) to them (fem.pl.)"

Sound peculiarities

The personal extension -t the 2nd person. so called becomes -d- between vowels:

• təkfet "you gave" - ​​təkfed-i "you gave me"

The personal ending -ʕ of the 1st pers. so called can become voiceless before a consonant, thus to ḥ:

• əllămăʕ "I saw" - əllămăḥ-t "I saw him"
• əššeʕ "I ate" - əššeḥ-t "I ate him"

Further assimilations occur between vowels, namely -ʕt-> -ḥḥ-, -kt-> -kk-, -bt-> -pp-, -st-> -ss-:

• əššeʕ "I ate" + -tăt> əššeḥḥăt "I ate them (fem.sg.)"
• wătăʕ "I hit" + -tăt> wătăḥḥăt "I hit her (fem.sg.)"
• wătăʕ "I hit" + -tənăt> wătăḥnăt "I hit her (fem.pl.)"
• əkfeʕ "I gave" + -ak + -tăt> əkfeʕakkăt "I gave it to you"
• nəkf "we gave" + -as + -tăn> nəkfassăn "we gave them (pl.) to him"
• ikf "he gave" + -anăʕ + -tăn> ikfanăḥḥăn "he gave them (pl.) to us"
• yăǧləb "and it blows away" (aorist) + -tăn> yăǧləppăn "and (the wind) blows it (pl.) away"

Preposition

In the following situations, the (accusative and dative) object suffixes are not attached to the verb, but precede it:

Generally with the verb in the future tense. In this case, the future tense particles d- mostly do not apply:

• ak ikf "he will give you"
• ak əkfăʕ "I will give you"
• i yəkf "he will give me"
• as-t təkfət "you will give it to him"
• it təkfət "you will give it to me"
• as-săt təkfət "you will give it (fem.sg.) to him"
• kăm uzăn "I'll send you"

In the presence of negations and certain other elements, object suffixes are appended to them enclitically:

• wăl-tăn βăkk "don't give them (pl.)!"
• ak-t təttərr "she will not refuse"

This subheading also includes relatively used pronouns such as ke "was":

ke-m tăssəlmăd ma-yim
what-you taught mother-your
"what your mother taught you"

syntax

Word order

The word order is relatively variable. Both subject-verb-object and verb-subject-object are common.

modal verbs

After modal verbs, the future tense likes to appear:

βreʕ d weʕas
I-want FUTUR I-will-go
"I want to go"

βreʕ əkmăt ăbbăʕ
I-want to bring you I-will-bring
you "I want to bring you there"

iβro d yuβăʕ talta
he-wants to FUTUR he-will-take woman
"he wants to take (marry) a wife"

Questions

Sentence questions are marked by a particle na after the verb or at the end of the sentence:

ak tănəddemət na
not asleep QUESTION
"aren't you sleeping?" (formal past tense)

For verbal questions, the question word is at the beginning of the sentence as in German:

anno where
who this
"who is that?"

din təlla toness-e
where is the key ART
"where is the key?"

ke ttăǧət da
what are you doing here
"what are you doing here?"

ke d əǧăʕ
what FUTUR I-will-do
"what should I do?"

vocabulary

Some elements from the basic vocabulary. Verbs are in the 3rd pers. so called mask. des Aorists quoted:

eye	awăll
three	karăḍ
one	yon
eat	yăšš
woman	talta
five	səmməs
give	yăkf
go	yawas
big	imqor
Well	ʕažib
hand	ofəs
Listen	yăsl
man	wăǧǧid
mouth	ame
Surname	ism
say	yăn
see	yălləm
four	aqqoz
water	aman
knowledge	yăssən
two	sən

Numeral

The ghadamès language is not written, not even with the related Tuareg language common tifinagh . Remarkably, the Ghadamsi have their own numerals. No Unicode coding has yet been provided for these.

1	∣
2	∣∣
3	∣∣∣
4th	∣∣∣∣
5	>
6th	∣>
7th	∣∣>
8th	∣∣∣>
9	∣∣∣∣>
10	◯
15th	> ◯
20th	◯◯
50	ⵒ
100	ɤ
500	ⴴ
1000	ⴵ

literature

• J. Lanfry: Two notes grammaticales sur le berbère de Ghadamès , Mémorial André Basset, 1957, 57-60
• J. Lanfry 1968: Ghadamès, Vol. I: Textes - notes ethnographiques - observations grammaticales , Fort-National
• J. Lanfry 1972: Deux notes sur le berbère de Ghadamès , in Comptes rendus du Groupe Linguistique d'Études Chamito-Semitiques 16: 175-184
• J. Lanfry 1973: Ghadamès, Vol. II: Glossaire , Fort-National
• A. de Motylinski 1904: Le dialecte berbère de R'edamès , Paris
• K. Prasse: The origin of the vowels o and e in Twareg and Ghadamsi , in Current progress in Afro-Asiatic linguistics, 1984, 317-326
• K. Prasse & J. Lanfry: Le ghadamsi , Encyclopédie berbère Vol. 20, 1998, 3073-3082
• W. Vycichl 1952: The Berber numerical system of Ghadames and its origin , in Rivista di Studi Orientali 27: 81–83

Thanks to Lanfry's publications, de Motylinski's older, acoustically less precise work has become obsolete.

Remarks

1. ↑ M. Kossmann, Berber article . In: Z. Frajzyngier, E. Shay (Ed.): The Afroasiatic languages. 2012, p. 28.
2. ↑ Lanfry writes e instead of ă, ị instead of e, ụ instead of o. He sometimes marks the full vowels (a, ị, i, ụ, u) with length markings, but in an unsystematic way.
3. ↑ See Lanfry (1973: 414).
4. ↑ Very rarely also documented as yə-, which is only a notation variant.
5. ↑ Lanfry (1968: 325). This is one of the few clear statements about emphasis in Lanfry's documentation.
6. ↑ This verb also has ă- in the past and future tense because of the n-.
7. ↑ This verb is only used in the past tense.
8. ↑ One would expect yănγ etc., but assimilation takes place.
9. ↑ Lanfry (1968: 378), Lanfry (1973: 275), Vycichl (1952).