Intercomprehension

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Interkomprehension (Latin: inter “between”, Komprehension “understanding”) describes the ability to understand a foreign language based on knowledge of another. The same applies to different dialects. Intercomprehension occurs naturally when people of different languages ​​speak to one another without using a common language, or when they read texts in languages ​​that they neither learned nor acquired in their natural environment. Like the understanding of spoken language in general, oral intercomprehension usually takes place spontaneously and unconsciously. However, the ability can be expanded through targeted sensitization to already available so-called inter-lingual transfer bases and through training. A transfer basis like German continuously allows in principle the identification of s. continue , fr. continuer / continuation / continuité / continuel , it. continuare / continuità etc.

An example of 'natural' intercomprehension is the ability of most Spanish speakers to hear or, above all, read Portuguese, which is very close to their language, even though they cannot speak it (correctly). Although intercomprehension primarily affects receptive skills, it can also be used to accelerate language acquisition, especially a second Romance or Slavic language. Intercomprehension is a phenomenon that has accompanied the multilingual communicative tradition (not only) of Europeans over many centuries. Intercomprehensively based communication and learning are much older than our modern languages ​​and their teaching as mother and foreign languages.

Intercomprehension research

Intercomprehension research encompasses different branches and objects of knowledge. In Romance countries, the understanding or non-understanding of written and spoken Romance languages ​​by speakers who have not acquired this language plays a role (e.g. Jamet 2007). Another branch examines the acquisition of intercomprehensive competence by Romanophone; another the behavior of speakers of different Romance languages ​​in informal intercomprehension.

In Germany, the intercomprehension of Romance languages ​​is the subject of didactic research. While the focus was initially on studying the learning of a second Romance language (such as Spanish after French) (Abel 1971), the focus has now shifted. In this country, (didactic) intercomprehension research focuses on the following questions: 1.) How do German speakers understand an unknown Romance language? 2.) How does intercomprehension promote language learning awareness and language learning competence? 3.) How can intercomprehension be taught to whom? 4.) What do (competent) language learners say about multi-language acquisition and intercomprehensively based teaching, about language learning awareness and language learning competence? Didactic methods have been developed that make it possible to understand a (foreign) language on the basis of a closely related language (which has already been learned, possibly as a mother tongue). They are based on the commonalities (transfer bases) of the languages. Unknown words, meanings, structures and linguistic functions are made accessible.

Aiming of the learning and teaching method of intercomprehension and its limits

Intercomprehension is the understanding of languages ​​that are neither naturally acquired nor learned through lessons. German speakers will understand the Dutch sentence type voor local en regional informatie een plaatsnaam of de vier cijfers van een postcode en klik op OK 'tip (s) for local and regional information a place name (place name) from the four digits of a postal code (zip code) and click on OK '. The identification of the target language elements provides important information on the vocabulary and grammar of Dutch, but also on so-called rules of correspondence between the target and source language: e.g. voor ~ 'for', een ' ein (e)', plaatsnaam ~ 'place name' , Postcode ~ 'Postcode'…; for word formation nl. –Atie ~ dt. –Ation…; on phonetics and orthography: long vowels are denoted by doubling in Dutch: voor , naam ...; on morphology: the plural becomes u. a. expressed by - s - (as often in English and French); the imperative is similar to the German pattern: typ tipp (e)…. At the same time open-ended questions that require clarification later stay (Does of really, from 'or or'?). The knowledge of an inter-lingual correspondence rule leads, with some practice, to the expansion of the relevant knowledge: If voor is first identified, then voor niks ~ for nothing (for free), wat voor - what for (what for; what for) are immediately transparent. The interlingual intake is easily expanded to include an auto-input on the learner side. In this context, one has also spoken of optimized input ( enhanced i. ). As the examples reveal, intercomprehension not only requires sensitivity for languages, but also for the actual intercomprehension action or the learning process. Mental processes such as those described here develop routines in a short time, so that the intercomprehensive approach also describes a practice of approaching new foreign languages ​​and expanding knowledge in already known languages.

Intercomprehension, increasing the communicative radius, intercultural learning from a European and international perspective

The fact that intercomprehension enables the rapid development of reading skills in other foreign languages ​​than those already learned explains the special interest of the European Union in intercomprehension and its didactics (Bär 2004). The recommendations for the development of language curricula say : “… making it possible for learners to acquire partial competences in languages ​​related to those they know or have studied already (eg intercomprehension)” (Beacco et al. 2010). And in the Action Plan Promoting Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity (Commission of the European Communities, 2003: 3) it says: a .: "Every European citizen should have meaningful communicative competence in at least two other languages ​​in addition to his or her mother tongue. This is an ambitious goal, but the progress already made by several Member States shows that it is perfectly attainable. ”Behind the epithet“ at least ”hides the goal of a diversified and graded multilingualism, in which the multilingual reading competence achieved through intercomprehension is a fundamental one Role play.

Intercomprehension has long been widely recognized, especially in the Romance countries - Union Latine, Redinter, Euro-mania, InterRom, InterLat, Galanet and others. a. m. (passim Capucho et al. 2007; Meißner et al. 2011). In some contexts, intercomprehension didactics expand the communicative radius between languages ​​and language varieties, as Romani (2010) shows using the example of Quechua in Peru, which functions as a national language alongside Spanish.

Intercomprehension enables an understanding encounter with many foreign languages. By facilitating conversations between people of different languages ​​as well as allowing the reading of texts in many languages, it promotes empathy and the understanding of foreign cultures. In a multilingual Europe, this is not without reference to the promotion of a polyreferential identity, as numerous empirical findings show. All of this explains the relevance of intercomprehension for intercultural learning and the development of intercultural competence.

Experience with intercomprehension teaching and intercomprehensively based learning

Romansh or Slavic intercomprehension is also available to German speakers if they have the appropriate knowledge. These can be considered to be available if level B1 is achieved in two foreign languages. Experience with very different groups of learners regularly shows that intercomprehensively based reading leads to a level of competence in the target language after just a few hours that corresponds to that of a bridging language that is heavily used for identification transfer. Intercomprehension is thus a method for the rapid expansion of multilingualism in more than two foreign languages. A diversified range of school languages ​​and reflective foreign language lessons are indispensable if you want to broadly base intercomprehension skills. The decoding of target language forms and functions is accompanied by an increase in awareness of one's own language processing and learning behavior. Self-monitoring and directing attention between relevant linguistic and learning-related prior knowledge and 'new' structures to be developed explain why the intercomprehensive approach is also a strategy for increasing self, learning and language awareness. This is where the connection to autonomous learning lies.

“The earlier, the better.” This truism, which applies to many things, also applies to reflexive language learning. Even at the beginning of dealing with foreign languages ​​or learning foreign languages, comparing e.g. B. between native and target language structures play an important role. Morkötter's (2016) studies use the example of German and Dutch, French and other languages ​​to show that at the beginning of lower secondary level, learners develop language and language learning sensitivity with the help of intercomprehensive procedures.

What are the reasons for the success of such procedures? As the Dutch-German example illustrates, the intercomprehension corresponds to the mental language processing as it is common in understanding linguistic data or in language acquisition. This is not surprising, because intercomprehension is nothing more than comprehension between linguistic varieties, e.g. B. between dialects of one's own language. Comprehension is always based on the spontaneous or inferred identification of linguistic schemes, i. H. on the return of incoming language patterns (words, structures, etc.) to already available knowledge, which in turn can cause the construction of new knowledge schemes. Network models for the multilingual mental lexicon explain such processes particularly plausibly. Because of its 'naturalness', intercomprehension leads to very rapid language growth.

The material prerequisite, however, is always that 'transfer bases' can be found sufficiently between the languages ​​concerned. This is to be understood as similarities and analogies between known schemes and new knowledge objects ( e.g. German typing ~ nl. Type ). While a large number of lingual similarities are evident between the languages ​​of the same language family, there are largely no similarities between distant languages ​​(e.g. German and Japanese). In these cases, the intercomprehension didactics developed in the meantime does not apply.

Empirical research on interaction didactics

In contrast to foreign language teaching in schools, the efficiency of which has only been empirically “measured” for a few decades, intercomprehension didactics has endeavored to provide a transparent empirical foundation since its inception (Meißner 1993; Hufeisen 1994) and presented a number of studies (in Germany alone Meißner & Burk 2001; Bär 2009; Strathmann 2010; passim Doyé & Meißner 2010; Meißner et al. 2011; Morkötter 2016). The work focuses on the following aspects: 1.) Romance intercomprehension among German speakers (secondary school students, students from all departments, adults who are not used to language learning), 2.) Testing and description of intercomprehension lessons (secondary school students; young learners), 3.) Attitudes on multilingualism and intercomprehension (Morkötter 2005). The data were collected via videography, participant observation, learner protocols, aloud-thinking protocols and subjective theory research.

All of these studies, which are joined by numerous foreign studies, support the well-known positive experience with intercomprehension (cf. passim Meißner & Reinfried 1998). The fact that the intercomprehension event maps the structure of the learner's language or the multilingual mental lexicon in statu nascendi and that this happens close to awareness explains the particular suitability of the intercomprehension method for promoting language learning awareness raising strategy (Meißner & Morkötter 2009). There is a close relationship here between the intercomprehension method (Meißner 2004a; Hufeisen et al., Rieder 2001, also Doyé 2005) and learner autonomy.

The extended transfer type and the hypothesis grammar

As already mentioned, the intercomprehension didactics is a transfer didactics. The sciences of learning generally understand transfer to be the “influence of a material already learned on (the) learning of a subsequent material (learning material, task)” (Heuser 2001: IV, 335). However, from the point of view of language acquisition research, this definition falls short if it is limited to teaching situations (as is usual in foreign language didactics), because transfer processes are obviously involved in every language acquisition - whether controlled or uncontrolled. This is evidenced by phenomena such as recognition and the frequency with which forms are processed or the expansion of semantic and functional schemes. In this context, the mental activities of accretion, structuring and tuning (Norman 1982) were mentioned several times . Since the goal of intercomprehension didactics is first of all to transform the learner's existing learning-relevant 'sluggish prior knowledge' into useful language acquisition and language knowledge, research in intercomprehension didactics had to shed light on the relationships between the various fields of application of linguistic transfer and its mental organization. The data collected in connection with the project 'German speakers read unknown Romance foreign languages' (Meißner 2013) allowed the creation of a transfer type that goes far beyond the sometimes learning-inhibiting distinction between positive and negative transfer (Meißner 2004b).

• Transfer type:
  • Identification transfer: reading comprehension, listening comprehension, listening comprehension
  • Production transfer: writing, reading
• Transfer direction:
  • proactive transfer: from an already known language to the target language
  • retroactive transfer: from the target language to a language that is already known with modification effects in the mental structure of the bridge language
• Transfer range:
  • Intralingual transfer: within a single target language system, e.g. B. the L4 Italian
  • Intralingual transfer: within a source-language system, e.g. B. the mother tongue or a language already known to a learner
  • Transfer interlingual: between languages, concerning a certain systematicity / regularity, which includes at least two languages.
• Transfer areas of the languages ​​involved
  • lexical transfer
  • morphosyntactic transfer
  • phonological transfer
  • orthographic transfer
  • pragmatic transfer, transfer of communicative attitudes, routines, etc.
• Transfer categories:
  • Form transfer: Transfer of signifiers or form elements (e.g. morphemes, word formation patterns) etc.
  • Content transfer, e.g. B. Transfer of semantic schemes, additions of interlingual 'polysemy' or intersynonymy.
  • Function transfer: Transfer of linguistic (grammatical) regularities
• didactic transfer:
  • Transfer of learning experiences. Self-regulation and learning monitoring are affected: motivation control; Learning time management; Organization of the learning environment; definition of learning objectives and learning paths; Evaluation and control of the learning steps and the learning success; Securing learning outcomes; Use and availability of media and resources; Organization of social components of successful learning e.g. B. in contact with other people: tandem and exchange of language and learning experiences; Use of learning counseling; Creation of a learning protocol; a personal multilingual dictionary; Protocol and systematic updating of the hypothesis grammar; Organization of learning strategies and techniques; Selection and competent use of aids such as consultation grammars and dictionaries and, last but not least, separation of the lexical and morphosyntactic material into the categories 'opaque' and 'transparent', creation of your own learning plan based on the hypothesis grammar and learning monitoring.

A success-determining variable concerns the trigger of a transfer, i. i. the assignment of phenomena in different languages ​​under the criterion of a real or only apparent similarity. Linguistic sensitivity and sensitivity for goal-oriented intercomprehension processes are decisive for the initiation of transfer actions of various kinds.

To explain one of the central elements of intercomprehension didactics in addition to the transfer, the grammar of hypotheses, the Dutch example should be recalled: The identification processes described generate 'language hypotheses' that focus on the construction of a basic grammar of the target language and its vocabulary by the learners themselves, and one Need to be checked later (“Do you really form the plural with –s?”): In the social game of natural language acquisition, the direct and indirect reactions of the language partners have a confirming or rejecting effect on the formation and modification of the hypotheses. Significant differences compared to the acquisition of the first language result from the high degree of potentially learning-relevant, often multilingual, prior knowledge of the learners. Adults already have at least one developed language system (their first language) and also very often have knowledge of several foreign languages ​​relevant to learning and how they can be acquired. They use this knowledge if they want to approach another language or if they want to deepen their knowledge of a certain foreign language. So concern z. For example, in adult education in Italian, well over half of all vocabulary questions on the part of the learner are inter-lingual similarities (“Does the word mean the same as in French?”) (De Florio-Hansen 1994). The use of hypothesis grammar is a decisive criterion for the quality of intercomprehension didactic teaching. The hypothesis grammar is not only a means of developing the target language, but also to ensure sustainability. Only the interaction of volitional (motivational) components ( savoir-être ) with those of knowledge ( savoir ) and ability ( savoir-faire ) - to put it in the terminology of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learn - teach - assess ( Council of Europe 2001) - allow the development of an operable intercomprehension competence (cf. also REPA 2009).

Selection and arrangement of the linguistic input

Obviously, in order to be able to really use their (latently already existing) intercomprehension potential, learners must be able to identify transfer bases in sufficient numbers. The critical threshold is around 30 percent of the types , with the number of words ( tokens ) initially being of secondary importance (Meißner & Prokopowicz 2012). This underlines both the long-term structure of the intake and the arrangement of the input. Since intercomprehension is a natural phenomenon that encompasses processes that are already encountered in the first language acquisition, intercomprehensive procedures can be used at an early stage in language acquisition (Imgrund 2007; Morkötter 2011).

As with language learning in general, elements that are 'central' (often) for a language must be separated from 'eccentric' (seldom). Due to its size, this primarily concerns the so-called basic vocabulary. The following graphic shows the percentage of recognition rates between the basic vocabulary of the most important German foreign school languages:

As you can see, 81.5% are z. B. the Spanish, 86% of the Italian, 70% of the English basic vocabulary on the basis of French already 'identifiable, but English' helps', to the extent of 55% for French (Meißner 1989). Although one can argue about the subtleties of computation and the presence of the basic vocabulary in different types of text, the extremely high rate of transfer bases within the respective Romance, Slavic or Germanic language family cannot be in doubt. Nevertheless, one should be warned against naive optimism, because 'by no means everything' is transparent between Romance languages ​​and certainly not between Germanic languages ​​(Zeevaert & Möller 2011).

German also has broad bridges to the Romance languages. These primarily deliver foreign words: progressive, graceful, liberal, human, medicine, animal, consumption, radio, maritime, stellar, hospital, enthusiasm, enthousiasme, enthusiasm, entusiasmo, police, police, polizia, polizija . In theory-oriented texts (newspaper articles, technical languages, news) such words make up a very high percentage of the inventory after the structure words. Studies of successful German-speaking 'transfer providers' with unknown Romance languages ​​show that they often use German educational vocabulary in addition to knowledge of foreign languages ​​to a strong extent for intercomprehension processes.

The idea of ​​language filtering goes back to Klein & Stegmann (1999): In the Seven Seven you seven the Romance material in transfer and 'profile forms'. By the latter, they understand forms and functions that can only be found in a single Romance language and therefore do not represent any transfer bases: for example fr. beaucoup (it. molto , pg. muito , sp. mucho , en. much ), sp. alfombra (pg. tapete , cat. catifa , it. tappeto , dt. carpet , fr. tapis , en. carpet etc.) etc .; in the field of time formation cat. Pretèrit perfet perifràstic , formed with a conjugated form of the verb anar (dt. To go) <Latin. VADERE ( vaig, vas, va, vam / vàrem, vau / vàreu, van / varen + infinitive). The interlingual economy of learning is particularly evident in the field of interlingual phonetic rules. In this way, knowing about the regularity of graphic correspondence creates it. -tt-, sp. -ch-, pg. -it-, fr. -it-, rum. -pt- Transparency between numerous word series: such as notte, noche, noite, nuit, nocte or otto, ocho, oite, huit, opt or perfetto, perfecto, perfeito, parfait, perfect , dt. perfect . In the Spanish-Italian comparison alone, this leads to numerous other identifications, including sospecho / sospetto, dicho / detto; satisfecho / sodisfatto, derecho / diritto, pecho / petto, lucha / lotta, techo / tetto, estrecho / stretto, lecho / letto . In essence, the message is: Instead of learning a huge number of individual language words and rules, make the material available from several languages ​​with the help of a manageable number of transfer rules. It is obvious that learners - in order to be able to do this successfully - have to get to know the profile forms at a very early point in the learning path.

Reflexive learning and intercomprehension

The range of the use of intercomprehensive procedures is considerable: it ranges from the simultaneous acquisition of reading skills in several languages ​​of the same language family to the control of tertiary language teaching through systematic activation of the learner's transfer-relevant prior knowledge (e.g. learning Spanish to French). Of course, intercomprehensive procedures can also be used to some extent when learning languages ​​that differ more strongly from the source language (e.g. German / Polish or German / Russian) (Behr 2005); they can also enrich and improve traditional foreign language teaching.

The advantages of the intercomprehensive method for the reflexive learning of languages ​​and learner autonomization can be summarized on the basis of experience documented so far (case studies, laboratory studies):

• Interkomprehension works very closely and consciously with linguistic structures and therefore gives learners insight into the structure of their own learner language. For teachers, it is an important element of learning diagnostics.
• Interkomprehension teaches / practices the goal-oriented comparison between languages ​​and is a strategy for promoting language awareness.
• As intercomprehension provides sensitivity to linguistic structures and functions by comparing languages, it represents a strong strategy for preventing errors.
• Since the intercomprehension method requires the long-term recording of the hypothesis grammar, it promotes learning monitoring and the development of learning routines that generate sustainability.
• The examination of the hypothesis grammar requires the consultation of suitable media: of glossaries, concordances, dictionaries, consultation grammars on paper or electronic data carriers.

Last but not least:

• Successful intercomprehension strengthens self-efficacy and leads to a revision (positiveization) of previous ideas about foreign languages ​​and their learnability. The multilingual experience associated with intercomprehension makes one aware that languages ​​support one another and make language learning easier in general.

Text work and language curriculum in intercomprehension didactics

As it became clear, there is a close connection between intercomprehension didactic methods and learner autonomy through hypothesis-generating methods.

In the discussion about constructivist learning, the advantages of unstructured learning were emphasized several times. They are seen in the fact that learners themselves have to deconstruct and reconstruct texts, which leads to a deep and broad processing of the linguistic data. This also applies to intercomprehensive reading (Lutjeharms 2002). That is why texts should not - as is usual with strongly inductivistic control - emphasize the phenomenon to be learned excessively and thereby prevent deconstruction and reconstruction. Basically, the order in which the learners themselves perceive the linguistic topics (nouns, pronouns, etc.) determines the progression. Intercomprehension didactics can take advantage of what is known as 'authentic' text reading right from the start.

If intercomprehension didactic procedures are used in the teaching of a third modern foreign language (e.g. Italian / Spanish after English, French), then the question must be asked how the language curriculum should be structured. If the progression pattern follows that of the first and second foreign language, this means that receptive competencies, which are many times larger than productive competences, cannot be used, as the following schemes show:

A progression that relies heavily on the already latent reading competence in the target language at the beginning of the course results in considerably more processing of texts (language data) than is the case with the traditional pattern. With the expansion of the input, the intake increases. This in turn allows a better quality of intercultural learning, since the understanding of target cultural topics in the target language plays an important role in the development of intercultural competence.

The structure of the progression is then divided into the following phases: Target language phonetics and pronunciation - Development of the target language basic grammar by creating a hypothesis grammar - Development of productive skills. Of course, this ideal-typical progression can be broken if the learners so wish; z. B. by demanding more productivity.

Conclusion

In the light of previous experience and empirical studies on intercomprehension in different learning contexts, the intercomprehension method must be viewed as a way to improve the quality of language learning. The primary reason is that it is a powerful language learning awareness strategy. As intercomprehension makes the structure of the learner language aware of the structure of the learner's language through the presentation of the hypothesis grammar, it can be considered an important tool in learning diagnostics. Intercomprehension does not only concern the so-called late-learned foreign languages ​​(cf. Meißner & Tesch 2010) and the teaching of Romance languages ​​(Zybatow 2002; Hufeisen & Lutjeharms 2007). Rather, young learners should also be given a suitable insight into their own language growth. All previous experiences with intercomprehension or intercomprehension-based teaching show that the learners

• develop high reading skills in the target language very quickly and thus be able to use more input
• learn to compare languages
• develop their ability to learn reflexively
• optimize their previous attitudes towards languages ​​and their experiences of self-efficacy with languages.

However, reflexive learning also requires reflexive teaching. It is characterized by the fact that the learners are included in the decisions and that their learning processes are also analyzed and discussed in the classroom.

Research programs and attempts at the methodical application of intercomprehension

Romance Studies

• EuRom 4 or EuRom 5
• Galatea (Galanet / Galapro)
• Euro mania
• LaLiTa (Laboratorio Linguistico Telematico)
• EuroCom Rome
• Babelweb

German studies

• IGLO (Intercomprehension in German Languages ​​Online)
• SIGURD (Socrates Initiative for Germanic Understanding and Recognition of Discourse)
• EuroCom Germ

Slavic Studies

• Bochum reading courses
• EuroCom Slav

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Individual evidence

1. ↑ Apic (Association pour la promotion de l'InterCompréhension des Langues): http://apic.onlc.fr/42-Langues-romanes-methodes.html (last accessed on July 14, 2011).
2. ↑ Franz-Joseph Meißner: Is there a multilingual didactics ante litteram? A historical aperçu . In: Claus Gnutzmann & Frank G. Königs (Hrsg.): History of foreign language teaching. Foreign language teaching and learning . tape 39 . Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2010, p. 133-144 .
3. ^ Marie-Christine Jamet: A l'écoute du français. The oral assessment in the cadre de l'intercompréhension des langues romanes . Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2007.
4. ^ Fritz Abel: The imparting of passive Spanish and Italian skills in the context of French lessons. In: The Newer Languages . tape 70 , 1971, p. 355-359 .
5. ↑ Meißner, Franz-Joseph & Burk, Heike: Listening comprehension in an unknown Romance foreign language and methodological implications for the acquisition of tertiary languages . In: Journal for Foreign Language Research . tape 12 , no. 1 , 2001, p. 63-102 .
6. ↑ Meißner, Franz-Joseph & Morkötter, Steffi: Promotion of metalinguistic and metacognitive competence through intercomprehension . In: Manfred Raupach (Ed.): Strategies in foreign language teaching. Teaching and learning foreign languages . tape 38 , 2009, p. 51-69 .
7. ↑ Marcus Bär: Promotion of multilingualism and learning skills. Case studies on intercomprehension classes with students in grades 8 to 10 . Narr Verlag, Tübingen 2009.
8. ↑ Hélène Martinez: Plurilingüismo, intercomprensión y autonomización: el papel de la tercera lengua en el desarollo de la autonomía . In: Peter Doyé & Franz-Joseph Meißner (eds.): Lernerautonomie durch Interkomprehension / Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Intercomprehension / L'autonomisation de l'apprenant par l'intercompréhension . Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2010, p. 146-160 .
9. ↑ Steffi Morkötter: Promotion of language learning competence at the beginning of secondary school. Research on early intercomprehension . Gunter Narr, Tübingen 2016.
10. ^ Université de Provence (Aix-Marseille 1). EuRom4: Archive link ( Memento of the original dated June 11, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (last accessed on July 14, 2011). 
11. ↑ EuRom5: http://www.dglflf.culture.gouv.fr/publications/Eurom5_4.pdf (last accessed on July 14, 2011).
12. ↑ Unité de Technologie de l'Éducation (Université de Mons-Hainaut). Galanet: Archive link ( Memento of the original from January 26, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (last accessed on July 14, 2011). 
13. ^ Universidade de Aveiro et alii: Galapro. Formation de formateurs à l'Intercompréhension en Langues Romanes: Archive link ( Memento of the original dated November 21, 2014) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (last accessed on July 14, 2011). 
14. ↑ Université Stendhal Grenoble III. Galatea: Archived copy ( Memento of the original from July 27, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (last accessed on July 14, 2011). 
15. ↑ Euro-mania: http://www.euro-mania.eu/ (last accessed on July 14, 2011).
16. ↑ CIDI: Archive link ( Memento of the original from February 20, 2005 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (last accessed on July 14, 2011). 
17. ↑ CIID. LaLiTa: Archived copy ( Memento of the original from May 31, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (last accessed on July 14, 2011). 
18. ↑ EuroCom. Saarland University: http://www.eurocom.uni-saarland.de/ (last accessed on July 14, 2011).
19. ↑ Babelweb. Université de La Réunion: http://www.babel-web.eu/ (last accessed on January 4, 2013).
20. ↑ IGLO: Archive link ( Memento of the original dated August 10, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (last accessed on July 14, 2011). 
21. ↑ SIGURD: http://www.statvoks.no/sigurd/main_guide.htm (last accessed on July 14, 2011).
22. ↑ EuroCom. Saarland University: http://www.eurocom.uni-saarland.de/ (last accessed on July 14, 2011).
23. ↑ Ruhr University Bochum: http://www.uv.rub.de/pvz-planung/i3v/00022000/11023422.htm (last accessed on July 14, 2011).
24. ↑ EuroCom. Saarland University: http://www.eurocom.uni-saarland.de/ (last accessed on July 14, 2011).