Nyaya

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Nyaya ( Sanskrit : न्यायदर्शनम्, rule, method, analysis) is one of the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy . The Nyaya primarily deals with the topics of epistemology and logic and within this framework established a number of standards that have been accepted and applied by most orthodox and non-orthodox systems in philosophical discourse. A representative of Nyaya is called Naiyayika.

History and Development

The founder of Nyaya is the legendary Rishi Gautama , who is also known in tradition under the nickname "Akshapada" ("eye-pod"). He is the author of the "Nyaya Sutras", which were written around the 2nd century BC. BC originated.

The "Nyayabhashya", a commentary on the "Nyaya Sutras" by Vatsyayana Pakshilasvamin (approx. 5th century AD), contains for the first time the five-part syllogism typical of the logic of Indian philosophy :

Thesis (pratijna): There is fire on the mountain.
Reason (hetu): Because there is smoke there.
Example (udaharana): Where there is smoke, there is fire (like in the kitchen, unlike in the lake).
Application (apanaya): There is smoke seen on the mountain.
Conclusion (nigamana): So there is fire on the mountain.

In the 7th century AD, the "Nyayavarttika", a commentary on the "Nyayabhashya" by Bharadvaja Uddyotakara, saw a reorientation towards theism . In the 10th century AD, the nyaya in its classical form disappears by being completely absorbed in the sister system of the Vaisheshika . This step was initiated by Udayana, who in his theistically oriented works "Atmatattvaviveka" and "Nyayakusumanjali" advocated a philosophy of synthesis with the help of which he wanted to bring both systems into harmony with the idea of ​​a god (" Ishvara ") (he tried his hand at in this context also on a proof of God , especially as a reaction against the Buddhist schools). Only in the course of the 12th century AD was the system revived with the emergence of the "new Nyaya" (Sanskrit: navya nyaya) as an independent school - a development that goes back to Gangesha Upadhyaya, the author of the "Tattvacintamani" ("wishing stones of the truth ").

philosophy

The Nyaya is traditionally called "debate science" (Sanskrit: tarka vidya) or also "discussion science" (Sanskrit: vada vidya). In this system everything revolves around an analytical approach to cognition and knowledge, but is always committed to the moksha idea. The thematic approach thus has a strong soteriological component that goes beyond the requirement of pure knowledge acquisition. The aim of Nyaya is to examine in detail the means necessary for liberation from the cycle of rebirth samsara , and to discuss which knowledge is a prerequisite for salvation. Metaphysics and ontology are more in the background in classical Nyaya, as these subject areas are already completely covered by the sister system of Vaisheshika - this includes the atomic theory and the principle of "Adrishta" in connection with the karma doctrine , which the Nyaya system all recognizes.

In its epistemology and logic, the Nyaya set its own standards, which were accepted by most systems of Indian philosophy, in particular the doctrine of the "means of knowledge" (pramanas) and the doctrine of the "16 categories (padarthas)".

Knowledge

All knowledge that is necessary for liberation (Sanskrit: apavarga) presupposes four conditions:

1. The subject, the "knower" (pramata),

2. The object of knowledge (prameya), of which the Nyaya gives a total of twelve. These are in detail:

(i) the self (atman)
(ii) the body (sharira)
(iii) the senses (indriyas)
(iv) the sense objects (artha)
(v) the intellect (buddhi)
(vi) the spirit (manas)
(vii) activity (pravritti)
(viii) inadequacy, deficiency (dosha)
(ix) rebirth (pretyabhava)
(x) fruit (phala)
(xi) suffering (duhkha) and
(xii) redemption (apavarga)

3. Knowledge (pramiti), and

4. The means of knowledge (pramana), of which the Nyaya recognizes four as valid:

(i) perception (pratyaksha)
(ii) conclusion (anumana)
(iii) comparison (upamana) and
(iv) Verbal communication (sabda)

Category theory

The Nyaya worked out sixteen categories (padarthas) that describe the determination of valid knowledge in the course of the discussion on the basis of successive stages. In philosophical debates, they largely prevailed as generally accepted standard regulations.

  1. Means of knowledge (pramana)
  2. Cognitive object (prameya)
  3. Doubt (samsaya)
  4. Intention (prayojana)
  5. Example (drstanta)
  6. Sentence (siddhanta)
  7. Limbs of a conclusion (avayava)
  8. Reflection (tarka)
  9. Safe decision (nirnaya)
  10. Discussion (vada)
  11. Reasoning strategy (jalpa)
  12. Criticism (vitanda)
  13. Sham arguments (hetvabhasa)
  14. Twisting of meaning / assumptions (chala)
  15. Misleading objections (jati)
  16. Refutation / defeat (nigrahasthana)

Four types of negation

The Nyaya distinguishes between four different forms of negation . The negation of statements is part of epistemology and was described separately by this school.

  1. Apriori negation (example: the sun does not shine in the night)
  2. Posteriori negation
  3. Total negation (example: the air has no color)
  4. Reciprocal negation (example: being and not being are mutually exclusive)

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Anton Grabner-Haider. Lecture: Indian interpretations of the world, Karl-Franzens-University Graz, June 18, 2010