Reactivity (social sciences)

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As reactivity changes of state be referred to the experience and behavior, through the knowledge to be examined psychologically, are conditioned by the special investigation situation and by the chosen methodology.

The method-related reactivity, i.e. the influencing and possible distortion of the psychological examination results by the examination methods themselves, is a central problem of the methodology of psychology. The examined person is not an object of natural research, but rather forms a voluntarily participating and self-confident counterpart . Psychological interviews , observations , experiments , tests , and counseling are fundamentally integrated into processes of communication and social interaction and are subject to many influences that are by no means all known to the investigators or are easily accessible. In experimental psychology , the aim is to delimit the effects of the planned condition variation ( independent variable ) that are actually of interest in the sense of the question from the undesired influences ( response tendencies , disruptive factors , situational factors).

The methods of empirical social research and psychology are divided into reactive processes and non- reactive processes . Reactive methods are methods in which the measurement or observation can influence the behavior of the observed; this is excluded in the case of non-reactive (hidden) procedures. Examples of non-reactive processes include

Kant's methodological critique

Paying attention to certain contents of consciousness can change them, as Baruch de Spinoza already described: it is possible for humans to control their affects with the aid of their reason. Immanuel Kant analyzed this process in more detail "through the mere intention of mastering one's pathological feelings" in psychological and health psychological terms .

Kant defines the fundamental difficulties of empirical psychology in a pragmatic way in the preface to his anthropology in 1798 :

“But all attempts to arrive at such a science with thoroughness are faced with considerable difficulties inherent in human nature itself.

1. The person who notices that he is being observed and sought to be explored will either appear embarrassed (embarrassed) and there he cannot show himself what he is; or he pretends to be and doesn't want to be known; how he is.

2. If he even wants to investigate himself, he comes into a critical position, especially with regard to his state of affect, which then usually does not allow any imagination: namely, that when the mainsprings are in action, he does not observe himself; and when he watches himself, the mainsprings rest.

3. Place and time circumstances, if they are persistent, cause habituation which, as they say, is of a different nature and makes it difficult for people to judge themselves; what he thinks himself to be, but rather what he should make of the other with whom he is in contact; because the change in the situation in which man is placed by his fate, or in which he, as an adventurer, also sets himself, makes it very difficult for anthropology to raise it to the rank of a formal science. "

Elsewhere he writes:

“Because the pure inner intuition in which the soul appearances are to be constructed is time, which has only one dimension. But not even as a systematic art of dissection, or experimental theory, can it ever come close to chemistry, because in it the manifold of inner observation is separated from one another only through the mere division of thought, but not retained separately and linked again at will, even less one Another thinking subject lets us appropriately submit to our attempts at intention, and even observation in itself alters and disfigures the state of the observed object. It can therefore never become anything more than a historical and, as such, as much as possible systematic natural theory of the inner sense, that is, a natural description of the soul, but not soul science, not even psychological experimental theory; . "

Formulated in today's terms: The psychological observation or questioning as well as hallucinations distort behavior and self-assessments. The living conditions give rise to attitudes, self-concepts and subjective everyday theories . The self-observation of one's own condition is, especially in the case of intense experiences, hardly possible or it can change this condition. Other people do not readily follow instructions. The disturbing effects can hardly be prevented or controlled. The introspection has many fundamental sources of error and much remains hidden from it.

It was only much later that research areas in psychology emerged here: on the behavior of the test subjects , the consequences of self- awareness , learned attitudes , self and external concepts, the questionable participation of the subjects (today: compliance , reactance ).

A method-related reactivity induced by the research methodology had been known for a long time through Kant , before Werner Heisenberg described the uncertainty principle in quantum physics, which was then cited secondarily by some psychologists as a new insight for their field.

Prompt character of the investigation situation and typical test subjects

Martin T. Orne (1962) defined the investigation situation as a problem-solving process in which the insecure test subject tries to orient himself and thereby takes up clues for the required performance and for his own role and motivation in order to grasp the real intent of the test director and the experiment. Here, the are stimulative nature ( demand characteristics ) of the instruction, the experimental situation (setting), the experimental procedure, the experimenter expectations and the employees eventually involved to distinguish. Specific prior experience, suspicion and certain personality characteristics cause u. U. a more intensive search for corresponding clues. According to Orne, four types of test persons can be distinguished:

  • the "good test subject";
  • the “negativistic test subject”;
  • the “test subject who made an effort to evaluate”;
  • the ideal type of the "honest test subject".

Theoretical explanations

Theories about cognition, cognitive bias and social interaction can be used to derive aspects of how the test results can be influenced by the test subject. The effect sizes will differ greatly depending on the research area, question and methodology.

Control strategies

With a few exceptions (analysis of texts and works, objective traces of behavior ), psychological processes are reactive, but to a different extent, depending on the respective circumstances. The application of the method, for example introspection or the interview , influences the phenomenon. If the test subjects of an experiment are not arbitrarily interchangeable elements of a population , but rather experiencing, hypothesis-forming and interacting individuals , then experimental psychologists must try to take social-psychological and differential aspects into account by taking additional measures (see Forgas, 1999, Orne 1969, Sarris 1992). These procedures are to be seen partly as control measures, partly only as an investigation of possible problems and improvements:

  • Strategies to clear up the situation . A post-experimental interview can be used to record the requirements ( demand characteristics ) perceived by the test subject and important features of the test experience . A “non-experiment” is also possible. H. just mental imagination and description, a role play or the simulation in an as-if experiment, possibly with an ignorant experimenter. The instruction as well as the entire procedure are carefully tested beforehand. The experimenter gets to know the experiment in self-experiment and is familiar with the various reactive effects that can occur.
  • Strategies to Reduce Subject Effects . After extensive preliminary information and clarification about the experiment, a realistic familiarization and preparation takes place through a trial run (pretest). Further procedures are double-blind studies , control by zero treatment, expectation control group (waiting list group). The special investigation hypothesis of the experiment is usually not set out very precisely, so as not to destroy the scientific value of the experiment. The informed consent to be obtained in writing from each study participant could, however, approximately name this hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis and leave open whether the participant belongs to the experimental group or the control group.
  • "Care of the test subjects". To motivate the test subject and to optimize the interaction between the test director and test persons, an open and friendly style is recommended: in recruiting, greeting, fair advance information, familiarization phase, instruction and implementation. This includes final information about the intentions and the course of the investigation and, at a later date, if desired, information about the result (see Huber, 1987, with explanations on the role of the “investigator as host”).
  • Exchange justice. The general reasonableness of the examination conditions, the type and duration of the tasks, the examination situation and the promised consideration (compensations) are important conditions and determine the acceptance of the examination from the perspective of the test subject. According to the guiding principle of fairness of exchange (see social fairness ), the agreements must be adhered to.
  • Education about legal regulations. The willingness to participate and the trust of the test subjects is influenced by the style of information about the applicable legal provisions and ethical aspects, mainly by the appropriate explanation of a written consent with regard to the principles: informed consent (voluntary participation after clarification of essential aspects and possibilities, being able to cancel at any time without disadvantages); practical data protection .

literature

  • Bastian F. Benz: Nonreactive Methods: Avoiding Reactive Effects in Psychological Research . In: Heinz Holling, Bernhard Schmitz (Eds.): Handbook Statistics, Methods and Evaluation . Hogrefe, Göttingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-8017-1848-0 , pp. 173-178
  • Jürgen Bortz, Nicola Döring: Research methods and evaluation for human and social scientists 4th edition. Springer, Heidelberg 2006, ISBN 978-3540333050 .
  • Joseph P. Forgas: Social Interaction and Communication: An Introduction to Social Psychology 4th Edition. Beltz, Weinheim 1999, ISBN 3-621-27145-7 .
  • Gisla Gniech: Disruptive Effects in Psychological Experiments . Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 1976, ISBN 3-17-001401-3 .
  • Martin T. Orne: The demand characteristics and the concept of quasicontrols. In Robert Rosenthal, Ralph L. Rosnow (Eds.): Artifacts in behavioral research . Academic Press, New York 1969, pp. 776-783.
  • Rüdiger F. Pohl (Ed.): Cognitive illusions. A handbook on fallacies and biases in thinking, judgment and memory. Psychology Press, New York 2004, ISBN 1-84169-351-0 .
  • Siegbert Reiss, Viktor Sarris: Experimental psychology: from theory to practice . Pearson, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-86894-147-0 .
  • Karl-Heinz Renner, Timo Heydasch, Gerhard Ströhlein: Ethical and legal aspects of psychological research. In: Karl-Heinz Renner, Timo Heydasch, Gerhard Ströhlein (eds.): Research methods in psychology . Springer, Heidelberg 2012, ISBN 978-3-531-16729-9 , pp. 131-137.
  • Robert Rosenthal, Ralph L. Rosnow (Eds.): Artifact in behavioral research . Academic Press, New York 1969.
  • Ralph L. Rosnow, Robert Rosenthal: Beginning behavioral research: a conceptual primer . (4th ed.). Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ 2002 ISBN 0-13-091517-3 .
  • Viktor Sarris: Methodological foundations of experimental psychology. Volume 2. Munich: Reinhardt, Munich 1992.
  • Heinz Schuler: (1980). Ethical Problems of Psychological Research. Hogrefe, Göttingen 1980.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Jürgen Bortz : Textbook of empirical research . Springer-Verlag 1984, ISBN 3-540-12852-2 . P. 197.
  2. ↑ Overview by EJ Webb et al .: Non-reactive measuring methods , Beltz 1985, ISBN 3407570031 and by W. Bungard, HE Lück: Research artifacts and non-reactive measuring methods , Stuttgart: Teubner 1974, ISBN 351900027X .
  3. ↑ Immanuel Kant: The dispute between the faculties. The dispute between the Philosophical Faculty and the Medical Faculty. 3. The power of the mind to be master by the mere purpose of its sick feelings. Königsberg 1798. In: Wilhelm Weischedel (Hrsg.): Work edition. Volume 11. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt a. M. 1978, pp. 371-393 (A163-A205)
  4. ↑ Immanuel Kant: Anthropology in a pragmatic way . Königsberg 1798. In: Wilhelm Weischedel (Hrsg.): Work edition. Volume 12. Writings on anthropology, the philosophy of history, politics and education . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt a. M. 1978, p. 401 (BA X, XI, XII)
  5. ↑ Immanuel Kant: Metaphysical Beginnings of Natural Science . Königsberg 1786. In: Wilhelm Weischedel (Hrsg.): Work edition. Volume 9 . Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt a. M. 1978, pp. 15-16 (A X-XI)

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See also