Switch reference
In linguistics , Switch-Reference is a morphological feature of verbs in some languages that is used to anaphorically link sub-clauses (“clauses”). More precisely, a switch reference marker indicates whether the subject of a verb is the same as or different from the subject of another verb. In addition to identifying subject equality and inequality, switch reference markers can also directly or indirectly indicate other information about the relationship between the two sub-clauses, similar to coordinating conjunctions.
The fundamental distinction made by a switch reference system concerns the question of whether the following subset has the same subject ("same subject" = SS ) or a different subject ("different subject" = DS ). In the context of the Switch Reference, 'subject' is defined as for languages with a nominative-accusative alignment: a subject is the only argument of an intransitive sentence or the agent of a transitive sentence. This even applies to languages with a high degree of ergativity. However, SS and DS can also be used to express other relations besides the nominative subject, and languages with rich switch reference systems can indicate other grammatical relations as well.
Examples of switch reference systems
The Washo in California and Nevada ( isolated language ) shows such a switch reference system. If the subject of a verb and that of the following are the same, then the verb does not take a switch reference marker. However, if the subject of a verb is different from that of the following, then the verb is given the DS marker -š :
| yá saʔ | duléʔšugi | yá saʔ | gedumbéc̓edášaʔi |
| again | he .is.reaching.toward.him | again | he .is.going.to.poke.him |
| "Again he is reaching toward him, again he will poke him" (same subject) | |||
| mémluyi | - š | lémehi |
| you .eat | - DIFFERENT.SUBJECT | I .will.drink |
| "If you eat, I will drink" (different subjects) | ||
In addition to expressing the equality or inequality of subjects in consecutive sentences ( sequential marking ), some switch reference systems can also mark verbs with reference to a focused sub-clause within a sentence (usually the last sub-clause), regardless of whether the focus sub-clause corresponds to the marked sub-clause follows or not. Sequential verbs with like subjects can therefore take DS markers if their subjects differ from that of the focus sub-clause. This form of switch reference is called (in this context) focus marking and is supposed to exist in Kashaya (Pomo languages).
Additional distinctions
SS and DS can sometimes also be used with the opposite subject. For example, in cases where the subject of the following sub-clause is different from that of the previous one, but the events described by the sub-clauses are closely linked, the SS marker can be used instead. Conversely, DS markers can be used where the actual subject matches when these subsets describe unrelated events. The SS or DS marking is therefore not only used for common subjects, but also to describe the continuity or discontinuity of events.
Some languages explicitly identify the interclausal relationship in their switch reference system. Kâte , a Huon language in New Guinea, has four switch reference markers, in which SS and DS are cross-classified with the distinction of the sequence or overlap of the events in the subsets.
A more complex system, which is in the northern or tundra Jukagirischen is divided both SS and DS in scene-setting ( "scene-setting") and neutral forms, with the former indicating that the event described by the selected subset of the out of range Event lies in the following sub-clause, and the latter do not make such a distinction. The SS forms are further subdivided into privative forms, which indicate whether the connection between the events in the sub-clauses is contrary to expectations; into perfective forms, indicating that the event occurs in the following sub-clause after the one in the marked sub-clause; in imperfective forms, which indicate that the events in the sub-clauses occur simultaneously, and which can also be specified as thematically related or as part of the same event.
Other complex systems can be used e.g. B. Cashinahua can be found in the pano language , which has ten markers that mark unfinished, overlapping or completed events as well as events that complete a sequence of previous events, all of this in addition to the identification of the subjects involved; also in the Caribbean language Panare , which can specify the relation between clauses as cause, movement, purpose or result.
Such switch reference systems take on additional functions which other languages realize through the use of conjunctions.
Properties of languages with switch reference
Languages, which are characterized by switch-reference, often have a reduced or modified concept of syntactic pivot point (Engl. PIVOT ): The terms are few restrictions on the types of roles that can occur in coordinated propositions or may be omitted, and "pivots “Can be better expressed as pragmatic or semantic roles rather than grammatical roles. Languages with a switch reference may also lack operations such as the passive and antipassive diatheses, or they may only use them for semantic effects, with the grammatical usage of said diatheses being handled by the switch reference system.
literature
- Richard Montag: Participant referencing in Cashinahua . SIL, 2005. (PDF file; 276 kB)
- Thomas Payne: Describing morphosyntax: a guide for field linguists . Cambridge University Press, 1997.