Title IX

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Title IX (= § 9) of the United States Education Amendments of 1972 , Public Law No. 92-318, 86 Stat. 235 (June 23, 1972), codified at 20 USC §§ 1681–1688, introduced by Senator Birch Bayh , brought about a significant boost in American women's sport.

Under the law, no person in the United States may be excluded from participation in parenting programs because of their gender, or the benefits of such programs may be withheld, provided the program is financially supported by the federal government . Since the entire school system (including most of the private schools) receives such grants, it actually applies to all schools and universities. Since American competitive sport is essentially supported by educational institutions and not by clubs, Title IX has the greatest impact (and publicity) in competitive sports.

In a large number of court cases, the parents of female and male students in particular forced a significant upswing in women's sport, which up until 1972 lagged far behind sport for male youth and men. In the meantime, this has definitely led to a change in consciousness.

In order to check the relative equality of opportunity, a three-part test has prevailed, whereby at least one of the three conditions must be fulfilled so that the goal of equality can be fulfilled. The following applies here:

  • All expenses (for sports) must in principle be proportional to the number of male and female participants in the sports programs.
  • Male and female athletes must have equal access to opportunities, privileges and sports facilities.
  • Sports interests and abilities of male and female participants in sports programs must be considered equally effectively.

This can be achieved through

  • proportional participation of women and men in the sports program according to their number in the student body
  • a continuous increase in the number of participants of the underrepresented gender (typically women)
  • Even if fewer women than men are active in the sports program, they still have to be optimally promoted according to their possibilities.

This has led to the fact that from 1971/72 the number of male participants in sport in high school rose from 3.7 million to 4.5 million participants in 2011/12, while that of female students from 300,000 to 3.2 Million increase. In college competitive sports, where the awarding of competitive sports scholarships plays a much larger role, the increase in the same period was from 170,000 to 256,000 for athletes and 30,000 to 193,000 for female athletes. Although the men have big teams in American football , which cannot be compared with the women, there is almost a tie in all other sports. However, there are mainly male head coaches to whom male and female coach assistant positions are assigned. In order to get a corresponding number of women practicing competitive sports, American universities have also regularly recruited competitive female athletes from abroad. Female students from English-speaking developing countries in particular have benefited from this.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Arnd Krüger : U23. In: competitive sport. Volume 44, No. 1, 2014, ISSN  0341-7387 , pp. 34-36.
  2. ↑ Deondra Rose: Regulating Opportunity: Title IX and the Birth of gender Conscious Higher Education Policy. In: Journal of Policy History. Volume 27, No. 1, 2015, ISSN  0898-0306 , pp. 157-183, doi : 10.1017 / S0898030614000396 .
  3. ^ A Policy Interpretation: Title IX and Intercollegiate Athletics, 44 FR 71413 (Dec. 11, 1979)
  4. ^ Title IX and Athletics. Proven Benefits, Unfounded Objections.
  5. ↑ Milton G. Holmen, Bonnie L. Parkhouse: Trends in the Selection of Coaches for Female Athletes: A Demographic Inquiry. In: Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. Volume 52, No. 1, 1981, ISSN  0270-1367 , pp. 9-18, doi : 10.1080 / 02701367.1981.10609290 .
  6. ^ Maureen Weston: Internationalization in College Sports: Issues in Recruiting, Amateurism, and Scope. In: Willamette Law Review. Volume 42, 2006, ISSN  0191-9822 , pp. 829-860, ( online ).
  7. ^ Rhea Maria Richter: Women's Sports in Kenya. Running culture between Kenya and the USA. Arete Verlag, Hildesheim 2016, ISBN 978-3-942468-70-1 .