Forests

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The so-called Waldere is the fragmentary tradition of an Anglo-Saxon poetry about the Germanic hero Walther. The 63 lines of Waldere are the only trace of the Walther saga in old English literature. The story, like the other Germanic heroic poems preserved in the old English tradition ( Beowulf , Deor , Widsith , Battle of Finnsburg), does not take place in England, but draws from a repertoire of materials from the Migration Period that was passed on through oral tradition for centuries. Because of its fragmentary tradition, it is not possible to say with certainty how old the Waldere is, how many lines it actually comprised and where the work originally came from. The information and theories about the origin of the Waldere range from the 8th century to well into the 10th century. The two sheets of the Waldere fragments were only discovered on January 12, 1860 in the Royal Library of Copenhagen by the professor and librarian Erich Christian Werlauff. How the manuscripts got to Denmark can no longer be explained with any certainty. However, they could have been part of the manuscripts that the Icelandic researcher Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin bought in England in 1786 on behalf of the Danish king.

The whale prediction

Different versions of the Walther material haunt half of Europe: In addition to the Waldere, there are five other versions. First of all, Waltharius (Waltharii poesis) should be mentioned, a Latin poem comprising 1456 hexameters, attributed to Ekkehard I of St. Gallen and probably dating from the early 10th century. Another Latin version (Chronicon Novaliciense) comes from Italy in the early 11th century, which merely paraphrases the story of Waltharius. There are also seven different versions of a Middle High German epic from the first half of the 13th century. This is followed by the Old Norse Þiðrikssaga from the 13th century and a Polish version, which can be found in the Chronicon Poloniae of Boguphalus II († 1253). Of the various versions, however, only the Latin, Old Norse and Polish are completely preserved, the remaining versions are either fragments, new versions or only borrow part of the Walther legend.

The story of the hero Walther , as told in Waltharius, can be summarized as follows: Walther, son of King Alphers of Aquitaine, and his fiancée Hiltgunt, princess of Burgundy, flee from Attila's court . In the Vosges she attacks Gunther , King of the Franks, with twelve of his loyal followers, among whom is Hagen . Walther offers Gunther part of the treasure he has taken with him from the Huns as a road money. But the King of the Franks demands the whole treasure and the girl. There is a fight. Walther defeats Gunther's warriors one after the other until only he, Gunther and Hagen are left. The following day there is a final battle, in the course of which Walther loses an arm, Gunther a leg and Hagen an eye. You then end the fight; Hiltgunt cares for the injured warriors. Walther and his fiancée move on to Aquitaine. They marry. Walther becomes king and rules for another 30 years.

The Thidrek saga gives the whale prediction in a slightly different form. Here too, Walther and Hiltgund live as hostages at Attila's court, which is known as Susat. However, Walther is introduced as the sister of King Ermenrich , while Hiltgunt is the daughter of Jarl von Greken. Both feel affection for each other and flee from Susat. Hagen, who also lives at Attila's court, pursues her with twelve men and puts Walther to fight. Walther kills all eleven warriors except Hagen. Walther knocks out his eye in a second attack with a boar's leg. Walther and Hiltgunt move further south into Ermenrich's realm. In the Thidrek saga, in contrast to the story in Waltharius, King Gunther is not involved in the fighting.

The fragments

The Waldere fragments have no direct equivalent in Waltharius . Due to the fragmentary tradition, some passages in the text are also difficult to interpret (since the context is missing and several translation options are possible); not even the order of the two sheets is 100% certain. However, the Latin version was repeatedly adopted as the source of the Waldere; sometimes a Germanic “Urlied” is assumed to be the basis for both versions.

The first fragment (referred to as fragment I) of the Waldere consists of a speech given by Hiltgunt (although her name is not mentioned). In it she encourages Walther to keep fighting bravely and to trust his sword Miming. The sword originally belonged to the blacksmith Wieland (in Waldere: Weland), who appears in two other Old English heroic poems ( Beowulf 455, Deor 1) as well as in several Scandinavian and German texts. He is also mentioned in Waltharius (there in line 965 as Wielandia fabrica ). Hiltgunt's speech also shows that Walther offered Gunther (in Waldere: Guðhere ) not only rings from the treasure (as in Waltharius, lines 611-614), but also an unspecified sword, which Gunther rejected . The fights against the twelve Gunther companions seem to be over and the final battle is imminent. In other words: Fragment I roughly corresponds to the “break” before the great final battle in Waltharius .

Fragment II is harder to interpret. It begins with the end of a speech whose speaker is not named: Hagen (Hageno) , Gunther and Walther come into question. The unknown speaker praises his sword: He claims that there is no better one except another one, which is also in his possession (line 2: ðe ic eac hafa ). The speaker also mentions that Theoderich (in Waldere : Đeodric ) wanted to send this sword to Wittich (in Waldere: Widia ) as a reward, because he had once freed him from great distress. The speaker alludes to an adventure that Theoderich had experienced together with Wittich in the land of the giants. The praise for the sword in the second fragment also claims a glorious past, as if the speaker wanted to show that the sword need not stand inferior to Miming, Walther's sword. There is a lot to suggest that Gunther is giving the speech: This fits in with the rejection of swords that Hiltgunt mentions in Fragment I: because whoever seems to already have a better one can reject Miming. WOLFF (1925), LANGOSCH (1973) and GENZMER (1981), on the other hand, suggested seeing Hagen in the speaker, since he, like Walther, had been a hostage at Attila's court and had the opportunity there to strike at this precious sword come. Walther is to be excluded as a speaker because he is explicitly introduced in line 11 as the speaker of the speech that follows there (lines 14–31). This second part is a battle speech in which Walther addresses the king directly, as wine Burgenda (Lord of the Burgundies).

Differences in content to the Latin Waltharius

Hiltgunt's role is much more active in Waldere : it spurs Walther to fight, while it appears much less in Waltharius : There it remains very timidam puellam ( Waltharius Z. 1407), but at least allows the three injured fighters after the fight supply ( Waltharius Z. 1408). In the Waldere, Walther offers his sword in addition to the golden rings as a road money ( Waldere , Fragment I, line 28); in Waltharius it is only the golden rings from his treasure ( Waltharius lines 611–614). Both times, however, Gunther refuses the offers: in Waldere on the grounds that he has a better sword anyway and therefore doesn't need Walther's ( Waldere , fragment II, line 1). In Waltharius , Gunther does not want to be satisfied with just part of the gold, but also demands that the girl be surrendered ( Waltharius , lines 601–602). Gunther is referred to in Waldere as wine Burgenda (Fragment II, line 14), while in Waltharius he is introduced as King of the Franks ( Waltharius , lines 441ff.). In addition, Widia and Niðhad are not mentioned in the Waltharius .

The poem

Reconstructed, the Waldere fragments make a 63-line poem. The structure follows the classic Germanic construction method, which the Anglo-Saxons brought with them from the mainland in the 5th century. The structure of a Germanic poem like Waldere is as follows. There are three levels: syllables that build up a measure, which in turn build a verse (also called a half line), which ultimately result in a pair of verses (the long line ). Each long line is separated by a caesura. The two half-lines, which together form the pair of verses, are connected by an alliteration: The first stressed syllable of the second half-line is the dominant one, it determines the alliteration with one or both stressed syllables of the first half-line. Also typical of Old English (ie Germanic) poetry is the use of formulaic elements, synonyms and paraphrases whose origins lie in the oral tradition. This becomes clear in words and concepts that only appear in poetry. In the Waldere z. B. for sword not only the common sweord (fragment I, lines 5 and 13 in the two compounds sweordwund and sweordplegan ) used, but also bil (fragment I, line 17, see German 'Beil') and mece (fragment I , Line 24). For Kampf stand beadu (Fragment I, line 26), hild (Fragment I, lines 4 and 30, Fragment II, line 12 in the compound hildefrofre , 'Kampftrost'; cf. Old High German hiltia , Hilde-, Hilt- in names ) and wig (fragment I, line 22 in the compound wigræden , 'Kampfgesinnung'), also includes the poetic sweordplegan ('sword game', fragment I, line 13), a word that only occurs in Waldere ( hapax legomenon ) . For warriors there are alternately elde (fragment I, line 11), secg (fragment I, line 5, cf. Latin 'socius', companion) and ordwiga (line 6, 'spear fighter').

The author of the Waldere uses kenningar : First of all, sweordplegan ('sword game') must be mentioned again (fragment I, line 13), which is used in the text as a paraphrase for fighting. A nice example can also be found in the second fragment (line 22): feorhhord , literally translated as “hoard of life”, meaning the hero's breast.

A central motif of Germanic poetry (or Germanic warrior culture) is also addressed in the Waldere: the fame that gives the warrior immortality. In the edited versions of Waldere it can be found as langne ​​dom (Fragment I, line 10), i.e. H. eternal fame. Fame is the guarantee of a warrior's immortality and, after all, can often only really be achieved by death on the battlefield. In Waldere , deaþ (death) and dom (fame) are linked with one another, namely in Hiltgunt's speech, with which she tries to encourage the hero Walter (fragment I, lines 8-11). In other words: the highest fame can only be achieved if he risks his own life in the glorious, best of all, hopeless battle.

The Waldere manuscript

The Waldere fragments are now in the royal collection in Copenhagen (Ny kl. Saml. 167b). The two sheets of parchment have roughly the same dimensions (approx. 21 × 14 cm, approx. 15 × 11 cm are reserved for the writing area). The color of the two fragments is dark yellow, the writing is generally dark brown and partly heavily faded, especially on the right edges of the pages. The leaf that begins with hyrde hyne georne is referred to as fragment I, fragment II begins with ce bæteran . Half of the double sheets were torn off: fragment I is the left half of such a double sheet (designated as Ia and Ib), fragment II the right half of another double sheet (referred to in the literature as IIa and IIb); 1–2 letters are still recognizable at the edges of the lost, torn-off side panels. Ker suspected the origin of the manuscript in 10/11. Century. Today it is more likely that it originated well after the year 1000. The fragments probably served as a book cover, which would explain the severe damage to the parchment.

Each page is described with 15 lines. No lines can be seen. Apart from a barely visible semicolon on the remainder of fragment Id (that is Ia, line 5, left margin), there are no other punctuation marks. The writer uses two abbreviations throughout: þ with a dash stands for þæt (that) in the text, the ironic note 7 stands for ond (and). Other regular abbreviations are the abbreviation for m; the abbreviation is also used to omit ne (IIb, line 14: þon, also þonne) and er (Ia, line 5: æft, also aefter). A special feature is the use of the runic character ethel (Ib, line 15, Heimat).

The writing is an insular hand. Characteristic is the r with a strong, tapering descender, e.g. B. in Ib Z. 5 in weorða, the cauda equina reaching down to the line. The ornament on Ib, four foliage decorations, is striking.

Much of the surviving Old English texts after 1000 is written in the West Saxon dialect. The Waldere is no exception. This does not automatically lead to the conclusion that the Waldere also originated in the West Saxon sphere of influence (i.e. that a West Axis was the poet). Many older writings were copied by West Saxon scribes in West Saxon form and probably adapted to their own language usage. Thus the Waldere shows the refraction typical of the West Saxon, i. H. Diphthongization of vowels in certain phonetic environments. The Waldere also shows forms that are more reminiscent of the Anglic (or Northumbrian) dialect: z. B. shows the word hworfan (fragment Ib lines 13-14) an unbroken form, in Western Saxon it should actually have been hweorfan. A theory that has been put forward in research for the origin of the Waldere from the Anglic-speaking area is the unbroken form of the name: Wealdere would be correct in western Saxony . The scribe of Waldere did not use their West Saxon form for the other names either: he wrote Widia instead of West Saxon Wudga and Niðhad for Niðhæd .

The forest next to Waltharius

When interpreting Waltharius and its historical classification, people like to fall back on its Anglo-Saxon counterpart. The fragmentary Waldere tradition, which makes a clear or uniform interpretation difficult, is problematic here. In addition, a “Urwalther” is often assumed, on which both versions should be based. The notion that the Anglo-Saxon Waldere is more "archaic" due to its Germanic structure and language has a not inconsiderable influence.

The Germanic layer

A fundamental objection to the claim that the Waldere is more “Germanic” than the Waltharius is the Walther material itself. He has traits that do not fit in with a Germanic heroic epic: Walther is a "lonely hero, without a master and without a retinue and without relatives" (his only companion is a weak woman). On the run, he does not behave like a Germanic hero: He prefers to fish, hunt birds and generally avoid fighting (which of course can only be deduced from Waltharius , since the fragmentary Waldere does not report anything about it) . Opposite him is Gunther, riding with an entourage befitting his rank, who, however, turns out to be unworthy in the course of the story (which becomes clear in both Waldere and Waltharius ). Another, typically Germanic element is the motif of the "hall", but only represents the starting point for the main story. Gunther's part also begins in a royal hall, and here, too, the well-known motifs of a Germanic epic appear (cf. SCHWAB 1979 again and again): feasting, hall jubilation (Waltharius 469), knocking over the table (Waltharius 473), warning (Waltharius 478) , Ride out with the twelve faithful (Waltharius 485) and armament (Waltharius 481f). The Germanic motifs also include Hagens' prophetic dream, in which Walther appears to him in the form of a bear who bites off Gunther's leg (Waltharius 621ff.). This type of animal metaphor is typically Germanic.

The Waltharius thus also shows a strongly Germanic layer and is by no means behind the Waldere . The Waldere , on the other hand, shows the typical characteristics of a spiritual epic (in this way Hiltgunt assures the assistance of God to the man who does good deeds in fragment I; and in fragment II Walther speaks of this divine grace).

Wieland's work

The mention of Wieland's work in both Waldere (Fragment I, line 2: Welandes worc ) and in Waltharius (line 965: Wielandia fabrica ) is considered to be particularly important . In Latin Waltharius , the term refers to the armor that Walther von Hiltgunt had stolen from Attila's armory (Waltharius 263–265). This armor resists the attack of the enemy in the eighth fight (Waltharius 962–966).

In Waldere , the identification of Wieland's work is more difficult. Because it's not sure what that means. If Waldere and Waltharius agree, then both refer to armor. Of course, it is also possible that in Waldere the sword Miming is meant that Walther carries with him. An indication of this: In the second fragment, Walther explicitly praises his armor, which he had received from his father, as excellent protection against all enemies (Waldere, fragment II, lines 18-24). Hiltgunt's encouragement in the first fragment sounds as if Walther is not sure whether Wieland's work actually offers protection. The discrepancy is difficult to explain, because where should the change of mind suddenly come from? SCHWAB (1979) offers two translation options for the position in Waldere (Schwab, p. 235):

(1) Wieland's work will not fail those who can do hard miming.
(2) Anyone who (like you, Waldere), a well from Wieland's workshop and wears the Miming, can feel comfortable.

In Beowulf , armor is also referred to as Welandes geworc (Beowulf Z. 455):

“If I fall in battle, which shielded my breast, send Hygelak, the best of the fountains, the most precious military equipment; it is Hredel's estate; and Wieland's work. Fate goes its way. ”(Beowulf 452–455)
(Translation: Therese Dahn, Walhall. Germanic gods and heroic sagas (Leipzig: Geibel and Brockhaus, 1889).)

However, this does not mean that Wieland's work only ever refers to armor, as Wieland is known to have not only forged armor (Miming also comes from him). So it is possible that Wieland's work in the Waldere fragment refers to the sword. Walther's speech, who praises his father's armor and does not refer to it as Wieland's work , also fits better . The term is a practical set piece of Germanic poetry; Welandes worc is ideal for alliteration and there is nothing to prevent it from referring to different things. The occurrence of the term does not necessarily have to be an indication that the Waldere poet knew Waltharius.

Battle descriptions

The Waldere fragments do not depict a fight, but they always refer indirectly to the fighting. Walther is described as a warrior who seeks battle in the Germanic spirit (fragment I). Also mentioned is a weal (line 15), which served as protection and thus reminds of a similar place in the Latin Waltharius, when the camp site was secured with a wall of thorn bushes the night before the final battle (Waltharius 1155f.); for SCHWAB (1979) an indication that the Waldere poet knew Waltharius. The battles in the Waltharius are shown down to the smallest detail: “There is nothing to be felt here of the kind of old Germanic battle description that stereotypically names the type of weapon and the result […].” (SCHWAB p. 236f). The poet's most important role models are therefore not to be sought in the Germanic tradition: he used the Aeneid of Virgil and the Psychomachia of Prudence , from which he took verbatim quotations. Sometimes the places, no matter how bloodthirsty, are alienated in a strange way, e.g. B. when the fighter Tanastus whispers a short farewell with bare entrails (Waltharius 1053) or when the hero Walther puts the severed heads of the killed fighters back on the body, kneels down and asks God to forgive their sins (Waltharius 1157– 1167).

Fame

The concept of the dom as an important goal has also found its place in the Waldere. But there is a difference: While death brought eternal fame in the classic Germanic sense (in a kind of “all or nothing” conception), Hiltgunt's speech expresses that Walther's survival is absolutely necessary: ​​because the fight takes place in their defense (the hero's death would be a catastrophe for them). Gunther also uses the traditional either-or formula at the end of the first fragment (lines 28–32): Gunther is given the choice: to flee or to stay dead in the field after the fight (to swefan, to sleep as Hiltgunt puts it). The old Germanic view is broken here by irony, because fleeing is truly not an option for a true hero — and Hiltgunt seems to rule out victory from the outset. In Waltharius there are various places in which these "heroic alternatives" are also used. So in verse 691, when the fighter Skaramund has to watch the death of his uncle Camalo and exclaims: “Nunc aut commoriar vel carum ulciscar amicum.” (Now I either want to die with him or to avenge my dear friend.). In a typically Germanic way, the speaker sees only two alternatives: glorious death in battle or victory over the enemy. Waltharius remains true to the Germanic tradition for the time being. Until Hagen appears: He also uses the typical formulas, but like Hiltgunt ironically, because when the final battle is about a hero's willingness to make sacrifices, he significantly changes the “either-or” formula: “At nos aut fugere aut acrum bellare necesse est. ”(We either have to flee or fight bitterly) (Waltharius Z. 1125) - an honorable death on the battlefield no longer seems to be an option. Both versions of the Walther material make it clear that it is not worth dying for the unworthy King Gunther. The Germanic style pattern is retained in both versions, but ironically broken at the same time.

The role of Hiltgunt

Waldere and Waltharius differ in the role Hiltgunt seems to play in the two versions of the Walther story. In the Waldere she is the one who encourages the exhausted hero Walther to fight. To what extent the speech reflects Hiltgunt's role in the full Waldere remains open - it is possible that it is by no means typical of the Waldere-Hiltgunt, but is explained by the special situation of the fight. In Waltharius she remains in the background during the fighting. Walther is her protector in both versions: For SCHWAB (1979), her protection is therefore the actual core of the whale prediction.

Schwab's (1979) theory is presented in more detail below:

In the Anglo-Saxon version, Walther is ready to part with his treasure and his sword. Schwab (1979) rightly asks why Gunther refuses and still insists on a fight - so there must be more to it. In the Latin Waltharius , Gunther demands the surrender of the girl, which Walther refuses. Here, according to Schwab (1979), there is an intersection between Waldere and Waltharius : Hiltgunt, the zealous admonisher of the Old English version, is so active because she is also the competitive prize there: whoever wins, wins the girl. The final battle is presented as an ordal , as a divine judgment, which as a foot battle, i.e. H. Close combat must be carried out - which is also addressed in Fragment II of the Waldere. Was Gunther a relative of Hiltgunt's? The following evidence suggests this: In Waldere, Gunther is the wine Burgenda , i.e. the lord of the Burgundians. Hiltgunt, on the other hand, is also a Burgundian based on information from Waltharius. If this was also the case in Waldere, Gunther, as wine Burgenda , would also be the hlafurd (Fragment I, line 29), the Lord, Hiltgunts. The consequence of this: Gunther, as a relative of the girl, would have had the right to pursue Walther and to demand the girl's surrender. If that were the case, Gunther, who acted irrationally, would be practically rehabilitated, because his intransigence could be derived from it.

Text sample

Excerpt from fragment A: (Beginning of Hiltgunt's encouragement speech)

1. ... hyrde hyne georne:
2. «Huru Weland [es] worc ne geswiceð
3. monna ænigum ðara ðe Mimming can
4. heardne gehealdan. Often æt hilde gedreas
5. swatfag ond sweordwund sec [g] æfter oðrum.
6. Ætlan ordwyga, ne læt ðin ellen nu gyt
7. gedreosan to dæge, dryht scipe ...
8. ... Nu is se dæg cumen,
9. þæt ðu scealt aninga or twega
10. lif forleosan oððe lang [n] e dom
11. agan mid eldum, Ælfheres sunu.
... cheered him on eagerly:
Because Wieland's work will not fail
a man who mimics,
the tough one, can hold. Often fell in battle
One warrior after another, sweating blood and sore from the sword.
Attila's spearman, let your courage now
don't sink today, courage ...
... Now the day has come
since you should either or (literally: at one time or two)
losing life or lasting fame
own with the people, Alphers son.

Web links

swell

  • Waldere: Obst, Wolfgang and Florian Schleburg. Old English textbook. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2004.
  • Waltharius: Strecker, Karl (eds.), Peter Vossen (transl.). Waltharius. Berlin: Weidmannsche Verlagbuchhandlung, 1947.

literature

  • Ice, Gerhard. “Waltharius problems. Comments on the Latin Waltharius, the Anglo-Saxon Waldere and the Old High German Walthari. “Small writings on old German secular poetry. Edited by Gerhard Eis. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1979.
  • Frank, Roberta . "Germanic legend in Old English literature." The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Edited by Malcolm Godden and Michael Lapidge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 88-106.
  • Genzmer, Felix (ed.). The Walthari song and the Waldere fragments. Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam, 1982.
  • Holthausen, Ferdinand. “The Old English Waldere Fragments” Högskolas Årsskrift, V, Gothenburg, 1899.
  • Lenz, Wilhelm. The outcome of the poetry of Walther and Hildegunde. Halle: Niemeyer, 1939.
  • O'Brien O'Keefe, Katherine. "Heroic values ​​and Christian ethics." The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Edited by Malcolm Godden and Michael Lapidge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 107-125.
  • Schwab, Ute: Waldere. Testo e commento . Messina 1967. - Extensive commentary and detailed presentation of the history of the material.
  • Schwab, Ute. "Again to the ags. Waldere next to Waltharius." Contributions to the history of the German language and literature. Edited by W. Braune et al., Volume 101. Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1979. 229-251 / 347-368.
  • Scragg, Donald G. "The nature of Old English verse." The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Edited by Malcolm Godden and Michael Lapidge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 55-70.
  • Whitbread, L. "The binding of Weland." In: Medium Aevum, 25 (1956) 13-19.
  • Zettersten, Arne. Forests. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1979.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ SA Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry. An anthology of Old English poems in prose translation with introduction and headnotes (London: Dent, 1982), 510.
  2. ↑ a b Wolfgang Obst and Florian Schleburg. Textbook of Old English (Heidelberg: Winter, 2004), 165.
  3. ^ Gerhard Eis, Small writings on Old High German secular poetry. (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi NV 1979) 34f.
  4. ^ Arne Zettersten, Waldere, (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1979), 6.
  5. ↑ Zettersten 3
  6. ^ The Thidrekssaga or Dietrich von Bern and the Niflungs. Translated by Friedrich Heinrich von der Hagen. With new geographical note vers. by Heinz Ritter-Schaumburg. The candlestick, St. Goar 1989, Reichl. 2 volumes.
  7. ↑ Wolfgang Obst & Florian Schleburg, Textbook of Old English (Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2004) 165.
  8. ^ Gerhard Eis, Small writings on Old High German secular poetry. (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi NV 1979) 31.
  9. ↑ Zettersten p. 5
  10. ^ Roberta Frank, Germanic Legend in Old English literature (In: The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Ed. By Malcolm Godden and Michael Lapidge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) p. 96.
  11. ↑ Frank p. 92
  12. ↑ Obst / Schleburg p. 168, note 1.
  13. ↑ Ute Schwab, "Again to the ags. Waldere besides the Waltharius", in contributions to the history of the German language and literature. Edited by W. Braune et al., 101 (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1979), 239.
  14. ↑ Zettersten p. 5
  15. ^ Wilhelm Lenz, The Outcome of the Poetry by Walther and Hildegunde (Halle: Niemeyer, 1939), 38.
  16. ^ Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language (London: Routledge 52002), 69.
  17. ↑ Scragg, Donald G. "The nature of Old English verse." The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature. Edited by Malcolm Godden and Michael Lapidge. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 55-70.
  18. ↑ Zettersten p. 24
  19. ↑ Katherine O'Brien O'Keefe, "Heroic Values ​​and Christian ethics," in The Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature, eds. M. Godden and M. Lapidge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
  20. ↑ Ferdinand Holthausen, "Die Altenglischen Waldere-Bruchstücke", in Göteborgs Högskolas Årsskrift, V (Göteborg: Wald. Zachrissons Boktryckeri, 1899 =), 2.
  21. ^ NR Ker, Catalog of manuscripts containing Anglo-Saxon (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1957), 141.
  22. ↑ a b Zettersten p. 9
  23. ↑ a b Zettersten p. 8
  24. ↑ Zettersten p. 12
  25. ^ Ice p. 35
  26. ↑ Eis, p. 35f.
  27. ^ Felix Genzmer, Das Waltharilied and the Waldere fragments (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1982), 4.
  28. ↑ Schwab p. 230
  29. ↑ a b Schwab p. 231
  30. ↑ Schwab p. 233
  31. ↑ Schwab p. 235
  32. ↑ Lenz p. 28
  33. ↑ Genzmer p. 4; Schwab p. 236.
  34. ↑ Schwab p. 355
  35. ↑ Schwab p. 356
  36. ↑ Schwab p. 232