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[[Scutchamer Knob]], also known as '''Cuckhamsley Hill''' and occasionally as '''Scotsman's Knob''' or '''Beacon Hill''', is an early [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]] [[round barrow]] on the [[Ridgeway]] at [[East Hendred]] in the [[England|English]] county of [[Oxfordshire]] (formerly in [[Berkshire]]).
[[Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|The [[Taj Mahal]], [[Agra]]. [[Shah Jahan]]'s 1648 memorial to wife [[Mumtaz Mahal]], would, in 1983, be cited as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the [[World Heritage Site|world's heritage]]."<ref name="UNESCO_TM">{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252|title=Taj Mahal|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 28|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|work=World Heritage List|language=English}}</ref>]]
'''Islamic art''' encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily [[Muslim]]) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally [[Islamic]] populations.<ref> Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, ''Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250'', Yale University Press, ISBN 0300088698, p.3 </ref> It includes fields as varied as [[architecture]], [[calligraphy]], [[painting]], and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]], among others.


Originally called '''Cwichelmeshlaew''' or '''Cwichelm's Barrow''', it is recorded as having been the place where King [[Edwin of Northumbria]] killed [[Cwichelm of Wessex]] in AD 636 and, in the [[Middle Ages]], became the meeting point of the Shire Moot (or market) which was abolished in 1620. It was long thought to be the actual burial place of Cwichelm but the mound has been excavated several times without serious finds. In 1006, the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] states that the Danes marched to Cuckhamsley Hill as they believed that if they reached the Hill, they would never return to the sea.
Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art and design has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is [[idolatry]] and thereby a sin against [[Allah]], forbidden in the [[Qur'an]].

== Overview ==
{{Art history series}}

Islamic art is not, properly speaking, an art pertaining to religion only. The term "[[Islam]]ic" refers not only to the religion, but to the rich and varied Islamic culture as well. Islamic art frequently adopts secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians.<ref> Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Severth Edition, ISBN 0131934554 pg. 277 </ref>

According to the ''[[Encarta]]'' "Islamic art is developed from many sources: [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], Early Christian, and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] styles were taken over in early Islamic architecture; the influence of [[Sassanian Empire|Sassanian]] art—the architecture and decorative art of pre-Islamic Persia was of paramount significance; Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and [[China|Chinese]] influences had an important effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles."<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577725/Islamic_Art_and_Architecture.html MSN Encarta: ''Islamic Art and Architecture'']</ref>

There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the [[arabesque]]. The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of [[Allah]].<ref name="JAACMadden">Madden (1975), pp.423-430</ref>

Most Sunni and Shia Muslims believe that visual depictions of any living beings generally should be [[Aniconism in Islam|prohibited]]. Nonetheless, human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered [[idolatry]] and is duly forbidden in Islamic law, known as ''[[Sharia]]'' law. There are also many [[depictions of Muhammad]], [[Mohammed|Islam's chief prophet]], in historical Islamic art.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=rpUuqLPPKK4C&dq=wijdan&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=QXySmKzsy6&sig=a9V6tTTfsrTT5Ex01QGnwrL7XYY ''The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to the Fifteenth Centuries''], [[Wijdan Ali]], American Univ in Cairo Press, December 10 1999, ISBN 9774244761</ref><ref>[http://www2.let.uu.nl/solis/anpt/EJOS/pdf4/07Ali.pdf ''From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art''], [[Wijdan Ali]], [http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/EJOS-1.html EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies)], volume IV, issue 7, p. 1-24, 2001</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|Islamic Architecture}}
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the [[mosque]] (four-iwan and hypostyle).<ref>"Islam", ''The New Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2005)</ref> Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]-[[Byzantine]] elements, as seen in the [[Alhambra]] palace at [[Granada]], or in the [[Great Mosque of Cordoba]].

The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Domes have been used in Islamic architecture for centuries. The earliest surviving dome is part of the [[Dome of the Rock]] mosque, built in 691 CE. Another prominent dome was added to the [[Taj Mahal]], constructed in the 17th century with the [[Taj Mahal]]. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes were incorporated into Western architecture.<ref>O. Grabar (2006), p.87</ref><ref>Ettinghausen (2003), p.87</ref>

===Calligraphy===
{{Islam}}
{{Main|Arabic calligraphy}}
Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in a mix of Qur'anic verses and historical proclamations. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic ''[[kufic]]'' and ''[[Naskh (script)|naskh]]'' scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of [[minbar]]s, and so on.<ref name="JAACMadden"/> Illuminated scripts, coinage, and other "minor art" pieces such as [[Pitcher (container)|ewers]] and incense holders are also often decorated with calligraphy.

===Literature===
{{main|Islamic literature|Arabic literature|Arabic epic literature|Persian literature}}

The most well known [[fiction]] from the Islamic world was ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (''Arabian Nights''), which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] Queen [[Scheherazade]]. The epic took form in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.<ref name="arabianNights">John Grant and John Clute, ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'', "Arabian fantasy", p 51 ISBN 0-312-19869-8</ref> All Arabian [[fantasy]] tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into [[English language|English]], regardless of whether they appeared in ''The Book of One Thousand and One Nights'', in any version, and a number of tales are known in Europe as "Arabian Nights" despite existing in no Arabic manuscript.<ref name="arabianNights"/>

[[Image:Ali-Baba.jpg|left|thumb|"Ali Baba" by [[Maxfield Parrish]].]]

This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by [[Antoine Galland]].<ref>[[L. Sprague de Camp]], ''[[Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers]]: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy'', p 10 ISBN 0-87054-076-9</ref> Many imitations were written, especially in France.<ref name="arabianNights2">John Grant and John Clute, ''The Encyclopedia of Fantasy'', "Arabian fantasy", p 52 ISBN 0-312-19869-8</ref> Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as [[Aladdin]], [[Sinbad]] and [[Ali Baba]]. However, no [[medieval]] Arabic source has been traced for [[Aladdin]], which was incorporated into ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' by its [[French language|French]] translator, [[Antoine Galland]], who heard it from an [[Arab]] [[Syria]]n [[Christianity|Christian]] storyteller from [[Aleppo]]. Part of its popularity may have sprung from the increasing historical and geographical knowledge, so that places of which little was known and so marvels were plausible had to be set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this is a process that continues, and finally culminate in the [[fantasy world]] having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. A number of elements from [[Arabian mythology]] and [[Persian mythology]] are now common in modern [[fantasy]], such as [[genie]]s, [[bahamut]]s, [[magic carpet]]s, magic lamps, etc.<ref name="arabianNights2"/> When [[L. Frank Baum]] proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go.<ref>James Thurber, "The Wizard of Chitenango", p 64 ''Fantasists on Fantasy'' edited by Robert H. Boyer and Kenneth J. Zahorski, ISBN 0-380-86553-X</ref>

[[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnameh]]'', the national epic of [[Iran]], is a mythical and heroic retelling of [[History of Iran|Persian history]]. ''[[Amir Arsalan]]'' was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as ''[[The Heroic Legend of Arslan]]''.

A famous example of [[Arabic poetry]] and [[Persian poetry]] on [[romance (love)]] is ''[[Layla and Majnun]]'', dating back to the [[Umayyad]] era in the 7th century. It is a [[Tragedy|tragic]] story of undying [[love]] much like the later ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'', which was itself said to have been inspired by a [[Latin]] version of ''Layli and Majnun'' to an extent.<ref>[http://www.shirazbooks.com/ebook1.html NIZAMI: LAYLA AND MAJNUN - English Version by Paul Smith]</ref>

[[Ibn Tufail]] (Abubacer) and [[Ibn al-Nafis]] were pioneers of the [[philosophical novel]]. Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic [[novel]] ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' (''Philosophus Autodidactus'') as a response to [[al-Ghazali]]'s ''[[The Incoherence of the Philosophers]]'', and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional novel ''[[Ibn al-Nafis#Theologus Autodidactus|Theologus Autodidactus]]'' as a response to Ibn Tufail's ''Philosophus Autodidactus''. Both of these narratives had [[protagonist]]s (Hayy in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' and Kamil in ''Theologus Autodidactus'') who were [[Autodidacticism|autodidactic]] [[feral child]]ren living in seclusion on a [[desert island]], both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in ''Theologus Autodidactus'', developing into the earliest known [[coming of age]] plot and eventually becoming the first example of a [[science fiction]] novel.<ref>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref><ref>Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 95-101, ''Electronic Theses and Dissertations'', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]</ref>

''Theologus Autodidactus'', written by the [[Arab]]ian polymath [[Ibn al-Nafis]] (1213-1288), is the first example of a [[science fiction]] novel. It deals with various science fiction elements such as [[Abiogenesis|spontaneous generation]], [[futurology]], the [[Eschatology|end of the world and doomsday]], [[resurrection]], and the [[afterlife]]. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explnations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the [[Islamic science|scientific knowledge]] of [[Islamic medicine|biology]], [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[cosmology]] and [[geology]] known in his time. His main purpose behind this science fiction work was to explain [[Islam]]ic religious teachings in terms of [[Islamic science|science]] and [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophy]] through the use of fiction.<ref name=Roubi>Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", ''Symposium on Ibn al Nafis'', Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait ([[cf.]] [http://www.islamset.com/isc/nafis/drroubi.html Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher], ''Encyclopedia of Islamic World'').</ref>

A [[Latin]] translation of Ibn Tufail's work, ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', first appeared in 1671, prepared by [[Edward Pococke]] the Younger, followed by an English translation by [[Simon Ockley]] in 1708, as well as [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] translations. These translations later inspired [[Daniel Defoe]] to write ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', regarded as the [[first novel in English]].<ref>Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), ''Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature'', Al-Rashid House for Publication.</ref><ref>Cyril Glasse (2001), ''New [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'', p. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906.</ref><ref name=Amber>Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''43''' (4): 357-377 [369].</ref><ref name=Wainwright>Martin Wainwright, [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,918454,00.html Desert island scripts], ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[22 March]] [[2003]].</ref> ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' also inspired [[Robert Boyle]] to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, ''The Aspiring Naturalist''.<ref name=Toomer-222>G. J. Toomer (1996), ''Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England'', p. 222, [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0198202911.</ref> The story also anticipated [[Rousseau]]'s ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]'' in some ways, and is also similar to [[Mowgli]]'s story in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[The Jungle Book]]'' as well as [[Tarzan]]'s story, in that a baby is abandoned but taken care of and fed by a mother [[wolf]].<ref>[http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=808 Latinized Names of Muslim Scholars], FSTC.</ref>

[[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', considered the greatest epic of [[Italian literature]], derived many features of and episodes about the hereafter directly or indirectly from Arabic works on [[Islamic eschatology]]: the ''[[Hadith]]'' and the ''[[Kitab al-Miraj]]'' (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before<ref name="Heullant">I. Heullant-Donat and M.-A. Polo de Beaulieu, "Histoire d'une traduction," in ''Le Livre de l'échelle de Mahomet'', Latin edition and French translation by Gisèle Besson and Michèle Brossard-Dandré, Collection ''Lettres Gothiques'', Le Livre de Poche, 1991, p. 22 with note 37.</ref> as ''Liber Scale Machometi'', "The Book of Muhammad's Ladder") concerning [[Muhammad]]'s ascension to Heaven, and the spiritual writings of [[Ibn Arabi]]. The [[Moors]] also had a noticeable influence on the works of [[George Peele]] and [[William Shakespeare]]. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's ''[[The Battle of Alcazar]]'' and Shakespeare's ''[[The Merchant of Venice]]'', ''[[Titus Andronicus]]'' and ''[[Othello]]'', which featured a Moorish [[Othello (character)|Othello]] as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish [[delegation]]s from [[Morocco]] to [[Elizabethan England]] at the beginning of the 17th century.<ref>Professor Nabil Matar (April 2004), ''Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Stage Moor'', [[Sam Wanamaker]] Fellowship Lecture, Shakespeare’s [[Globe Theatre]] ([[cf.]] [[Mayor of London]] (2006), [http://www.london.gov.uk/gla/publications/equalities/muslims-in-london.pdf Muslims in London], pp. 14-15, Greater London Authority)</ref>

===Miniatures===
{{main|Persian miniature}}
{{see|Iranian art}}

===Music===
{{main|Islamic music}}
{{see|Arabic music|Persian traditional music}}

===Pile carpet===
{{see|Oriental rug|Persian carpet}}

No Islamic artistic concept has become better known outside its original home than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the ''Oriental carpet'' ([[oriental rug]]). Their versatility is utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a prayer rug, which would provide a clean place to pray).
Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition in Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in cities as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In older times, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage in Islamic lands.
<ref> Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David L. Janson's History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper Saddle, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0131934554 pg. 298 </ref>

===Pottery===
[[Image:Lustreware.jpg|thumb|[[Tin-glazing|Tin-glazed]] [[Hispano-Moresque ware]] with [[lusterware]] decoration, from Spain ''circa'' 1475.]]
{{main|Islamic pottery}}

From the eighth to eighteenth centuries, the use of [[Ceramic glaze|glazed ceramics]] was prevalent in [[Islamic art]], usually assuming the form of elaborate [[pottery]].<ref>Mason (1995), p. 1</ref> [[Tin-glazing|Tin-opacified glazing]] was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in [[Basra]], dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of [[Stoneware|stonepaste ceramics]], originating from 9th century Iraq.<ref>Mason (1995), p. 5</ref> The first industrial complex for [[glass]] and [[pottery]] production was built in [[Ar-Raqqah]], [[Syria]], in the 8th century.<ref name=Henderson>{{citation|first1=J.|last1=Henderson|first2=S. D.|last2=McLoughlin|first3=D. S.|last3=McPhail|year=2004|title=Radical changes in Islamic glass technology: evidence for conservatism and experimentation with new glass recipes from early and middle Islamic Raqqa, Syria|journal=Archaeometry|volume=46|issue=3|pages=439–68}}</ref> Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Islamic world included [[Fustat]] (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and [[Tabriz]] (from 1470 to 1550).<ref>Mason (1995), p. 7</ref>

[[Lustreware]] was invented in [[Iraq]] by the [[Arab]]ian chemist [[Geber|Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber) in the 8th century during the [[Abbasid]] [[caliphate]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles%2091.htm |title=Lustre Glass |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.history-science-technology.com/Notes/Notes%209.htm |title=Lazaward And Zaffer Cobalt Oxide In Islamic And Western Lustre Glass And Ceramics |accessdate=2008-03-29|last=Hassan |first=Ahmad Y |authorlink=Ahmad Y Hassan |work=History of Science and Technology in Islam}}</ref> Another innovation was the [[albarello]], a type of [[maiolica]] earthenware jar originally designed to hold [[Apothecary|apothecaries']] ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of [[pharmacy]] jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Brought to Italy by [[Hispano-Moresque]] traders, the earliest Italian examples were produced in Florence in the 15th century.

The [[Hispano-Moresque]] style emerged in [[Andalusia]] in the 8th century, under the [[Fatimids]]. This was a style of Islamic [[pottery]] created in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]], after the [[Moors]] had introduced two [[ceramic]] techniques to [[Europe]]: [[ceramic glaze|glazing]] with an [[Opacity (optics)|opaque]] white [[tin-glazing|tin-glaze]], and painting in [[metallic]] lusters. Hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of [[Christendom]] by the Islamic character of it decoration.<ref>Caiger-Smith, 1973, p.65</ref>

===Theater===
In the [[performing arts]], the most popular forms of [[theater]] in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] were [[puppet]] theatre (which included hand puppets, [[shadow play]]s and [[marionette]] productions) and live [[passion play]]s known as ''ta'ziya'', where actors re-enact episodes from [[Muslim history]]. In particular, [[Shia Islam]]ic [[Play (theatre)|plays]] revolved around the ''[[shaheed]]'' (martyrdom) of [[Ali]]'s sons [[Hasan ibn Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali]]. Live secular plays were known as ''akhraja'', recorded in medieval ''[[Adab (behavior)|adab]]'' literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ''ta'ziya'' theater.<ref>{{citation|last=Moreh|first=Shmuel|contribution=Live Theater in Medieval Islam|title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization|editor-last=David Ayalon|editor-first=Moshe Sharon|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1986|isbn=965264014X|pages=565-601}}</ref>

[[Karagoz]], the Turkish Shadow Theatre has influenced puppetry widely in the region. It is thought to have passed from [[China]] by way of [[India]]. Later it was taken by the [[Mongols]] from the Chinese and transmitted to the Turkish peoples of Central Asia. Thus the art of Shadow Theater was brought to [[Anatolia]] by the Turkish people emigrating from Central Asia. Other scholars claim that shadow theater came to Anatolia in the 16th century from [[Egypt]]. The advocates of this view claim that when Yavuz Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in 1517, he saw shadow theatre performed during a party put on in his honour. [[Yavuz Sultan Selim]] was so impressed with it that he took the puppeteer back to his palace in Istanbul. There his 21 year old son, later Sultan [[Suleyman the Magnificent]], developed an interest in the plays and watched them a great deal. Thus shadow theatre found its way into the Ottoman palaces.<ref>Tradition Folk The Site by Hayali Mustafa Mutlu</ref>

In other areas the style of shadow puppetry known as ''khayal al-zill'' – an intentionally metaphorical term whose meaning is best translated as ‘shadows of the imagination’ or ‘shadow of fancy' survives. This is a shadow play with live music ..”the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes...also...“special effects” – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience”<ref>Article Saudi Aramco World 1999/John Feeney</ref>

In [[Iran]] puppets are known to have existed much earlier than 1000 CE, but initially only glove and string puppets were popular in Iran.<ref> The History of Theater in Iran: Willem Floor:ISBN 0-934211-29-9: Mage 2005</ref> Other genres of puppetry emerged during the [[Qajar]] era (18th-19th century BCE) as influences from Turkey spead to the region. ''Kheimeh Shab-Bazi'' is a Persian traditional puppet show which is performed in a small chamber by a musical performer and a [[storyteller]] called a ''morshed'' or ''naghal''. These shows often take place alongside storytelling in traditional tea and coffee-houses (''Ghahve-Khave''). The dialogue takes place between the morshed and the puppets.<ref> Mehr News Agency 7.7.07 http://www.mehrnews </ref> Puppetry remains very popular in Iran, the touring opera [[Rostam and Sohrab (opera)|Rostam and Sohrab puppet opera]] being a recent example. <ref> Iran Daily 1.3.06 http://www.iran-daily.com </ref>

===Others===
From the eighth to the eighteenth centuries, the use of [[Ceramic glaze|glazed ceramics]] was prevalent in Islamic art, usually assuming the form of [[pottery]].<ref>Mason (1995), p.1</ref> Although the art of sculpture was hardly practiced at all, work in metal and ivory was often developed to a high degree of technical accomplishment. It is also necessary to mention the importance of painting, and particularly of the illumination of both sacred and secular texts.

== History of Islamic art ==
=== The Beginnings of Islamic art ===
==== Before the Dynasties ====
The period of rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries of the Islamic culture were in present-day [[Syria]]. It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or [[Sassanid art]] and [[Byzantine art]]. There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the [[Louvre]], whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Vegetal motifs were the most important these early productions.

Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as a warrior and the lion as a symbol of nobility and virility. The [[Bedouin]] tribal tradition represented the geographically "native" artistic hegemony.

Byzantine influence from the Christian west was not received without reluctance. Coinage and metalwork were imported and used for trade with the Byzantines.

==== Umayyad Art ====
[[Image:Umayyad Mosque-Mosaics west.jpg|thumb|Mosaics from the ''riwaq'' (portico) of the Great Mosque of Damascus.]]
Religious and civic architecture were developed under the [[Umayyad]]s, when new concepts and new plans were put into practice. Thus, the “Arab plan,” with court and hypostyle prayer hall, truly became a functional type with the construction of the Umayyad Mosque, or the [[Umayyad Mosque|Great Mosque]] of [[Damascus]] (completed in 715 by caliph Al-Walid I)<ref>Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305</ref> on top of the ancient temple of [[Jupiter(mythology)|Jupiter]] and in place of the basilica of [[St. John the Baptist]], the most sacred site in the city. This building served as a point of reference for builders (and for art historians) for the birth of the Arab plan, as Byzantine Christian.

The [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]] is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that recalls that of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces in [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]] (for example, [[Mshatta facade|Mshatta]], [[Qasr Amra]], and Khirbat al-Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated to promote an image of royal luxury.

Work in ceramic was still somewhat primitive (unglazed) during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period.

'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the [[Dome of the Rock]]'s construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art.

In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian [[late antiquity]], which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the Great Mosque of Damascus are based on Byzantine models, but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the [[arabesque]], which appears both on monuments and in illuminated [[Qur'ān]].

==== Abbasid art ====
[[Image:Cup Susa Louvre MAO568.jpg|thumb|Luster-ware bowl from [[Susa]], 9th century, today in the Louvre.]]
The [[Abbasid dynasty]] (750 [[A.D.]]<nowiki>-</nowiki> 1258<ref>Gruber, World of Art</ref>) witnessed the movement of the capital from [[Damascus]] to [[Baghdad]], and then from Baghdad to [[Samarra]]. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. [[Art history|Art historian]] Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic [[Rome]]", because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco-Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world," as 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi wrote.<ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.40</ref>

The ancient city of Baghdad cannot be excavated, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, Samarra has been well studied, and is known for its extensive cultivation of the art of [[stucco]]. Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran.

Abbasid architecture in [[Iraq]] as exemplified in the palace of Ukhaidir (c.775-6) demonstrated the "despotic and the pleasure-loving character of the dynasty" in its grand size but cramped living quarters<ref>Hillenbrand (1999).</ref>.

[[Samarra]] witnessed the "coming of age" of Islamic art. Polychrome painted [[stucco]] allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The [[Great Mosque of Samarra]], once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital.

Other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]] in Cairo, [[Abu Dalaf]] in Iraq, the great mosque in [[Tunis]], and the great mosque in [[Kairouan]].

The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of [[faience]], and of metallic lusterware. [[Hadith]]ic prohibition of the use of golden or silver pottery led to the development of metallic [[lusterware]], which was made by mixing sulphur and metallic oxides to ochre and vinegar, painted onto an already glazed vessel and then fired a second time. It was expensive, and difficult to manage the second round through the kiln, but the need to replace fine Chinese pottery led to the development of this technique.<ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.54</ref>.

Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government-run workshops known as ''[[tiraz]]'' produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk-ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation were not as important as their cash value along the "[[silk route]]."

Calligraphy began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated [[Qur'an]]s gained attention, letter-forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves<ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.58</ref>.

=== The medieval period (9th-15th centuries) ===
Beginning in the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of a [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] dynasty, that of the north African [[Fatimid]]s, followed by the [[Caliph of Córdoba|Umayyads in Spain]], gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in Iran.

==== Spain and the Maghreb ====
[[Image:Pyxid Al Mughira OA 4068.jpg|thumb|Pyxis of al-Mughira, Madinat al-Zahra, 968, today in the Louvre.]]
The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Spain (or [[al-Andalus]]) was that of the Spanish Umayyads. As their name indicates, they were descended from the great Umayyads of Syria. After their fall, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the [[taifa]]s (1031-91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th centuy, two Berber tribes, the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] and the [[Almohad dynasty|Almohads]], captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Magrhebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of [[Granada]], ruled by the Nasirid dynasty, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492.
al-Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of [[Averroes]]), the territory was an equally vital center for art. One thinks immediately, in architecture, of the [[Mezquita|Great Mosque of Cordoba]], but other, smaller, monuments should not be forgotten, such as the Bab Mardum in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], or the caliphal city of [[Medina Azahara]]. In the later period one finds notably the palace of the [[Alhambra]], in Granada.

Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al-Mughira is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints’ ossuaries. From the periods of Maghrebi rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork.

The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork.

==== Egypt and Syria ====
[[Image:Bassin Syrie 1.JPG|thumb|Detail of the "Baptistère de Saint-Louis," 13th-14th century, Mamluk, today in the Louvre.]]
The [[Fatimid]] dynasty, which reigned in Egypt between 909 and 1171, was one of the few Shi'a dynasties in the Islamic world. Their greatest accomplishment was the foundation of the city of [[Cairo]] in 969. The dynasty gave birth to an important religious architecture and a rich tradition in the art of the object, produced in a wide array of materials: crystal, luster ceramics and ceramics painted under the glaze, metalwork, opaque glass, etc. Many artisans were [[Copt|Coptic Christians]], who constituted the majority under the particularly tolerant reign of the Fatimids.

At the same time in Syria, the [[atabeg]]s (Arab governors of Seljuq princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts between the Turkish princes, and in large part supported the installation of the Frankish [[Crusades|crusaders]]. In 1171, [[Saladin]] seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory [[Ayyubid dynasty]] on the throne. This period is not terribly notable for architecture, but the production of luxury objects continued apace. Ceramics and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enameled glass became another important craft.

In 1250 the [[Mamluk]]s seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids, and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517, and gave rise to abundant architectural projects (many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period), while patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enameled glass and metalwork. The Baptistery of Saint Louis, one of the most famous Islamic objects, dates to this period.

==== Iran and Central Asia ====
[[Image:Samaniden-Mausoleum 2006.jpg|thumb|The Mausoleum of the Samanids, [[Bukhara]], [[Uzbekistan]], ca. 914-43.]]
In Iran and the north of India, the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]], [[Samanid]]s, [[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavids]], and [[Ghurids]] struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as [[Neyshabur|Nishapur]] and [[Ghazni]], and the construction of the Great Mosque of [[Isfahan]] (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze.

The [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuqs]], nomads of Turkic origin from present-day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048, before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of “Seljuq” works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from [[Damascus]] and [[Baghdad]] to [[Merv]], [[Nishapur]], [[Rayy]], and [[Isfahan]], all in Iran <ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.89</ref>.

The visual arts flourished in this period <ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.88</ref>. The second half of the twelfth century witnessed expansion of figural decoration, as seen in the [[Bobrinski Bucket]]. Figural decorations were also seen in surface decoration of "narrative scenes (such as the ''Shahnama'' of Firdausi), pictures of coutiers, animals, zodiacal themes and images from the princely cycle featuring hunting, banqueting, music-making, and similar forms of entertainment. Long benedictory inscriptions in Arabic and Persian became a usual sight in the portable arts. Sculpture in stucco, ceramic and metal now [took] on a new importance." <ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.90</ref>

Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals <ref>Hillenbrand (1999), p.91</ref>. Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources. <ref>Hillenbrand (1999), Chapter 4</ref>

Under the Seljuqs the “Iranian plan” of mosque construction appears for the first time. Lodging places called ''khans'', or [[caravanserai]], for travellers and their animals, or caravansarais, generally displayed utilitarian rather than ornamental architecture, with rubble masonry, strong fortifications, and minimal comfort <ref>Hillenbrand, p.109</ref>. Another important architectural trend to arise in the Seljuk era is the development of mausolea including the tomb tower such as the [[Gunbad-i-qabus]] (circa 1006-7) (showcasing a Zoroastrian motif) and the domed square, an example of which is the [[tomb of the Samanids]] in the city of [[Bukhara]] (circa 943) <ref>Hillenbrand, p.100.</ref>.

Innovations in the ceramic arts that date to this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a silicon paste (“frit-ware”), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage <ref>Hillenbrand, p.100</ref>.

In the 13th century the [[Mongols]], under the leadership of [[Genghis Khan]], swept through the Islamic world. Upon the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was divided among his sons and many dynasties were thus formed: the [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]] in China, the [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanids]] in Iran, and the [[Golden Horde]] in northern Iran and southern Russia.

===== The Ilkhanids =====
[[Image:Iskandar (Alexander the Great) at the Talking Tree.jpg|thumb|Iskandar at the talking tree, from an Ilkhanid Shahnameh, ca. 1330-1340, Smithsonian.]]
A rich civilization developed under these “little khans,” who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north-south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of “iranisation” took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the “Iranian plan” mosques, was resumed. The tomb of [[Öljeitü]] in [[Soltaniyeh]] is one of the greatest and most impressive monuments in Iran, despite many later depredations. The [[Persian miniature|art of the Persian book]] was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the ''[[Jami al-tawarikh]]'' by [[Rashid al-Din]]. New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster-ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts.

===== The Golden Horde and the Timurids =====
[[Image:Kamal-ud-din Bihzad 001.jpg|thumb|Construction of the fort at Kharnaq, [[Al-Hira]], painting by Behzād, 1494-45, British Museum.]]
The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the [[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]].

The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurids
]], was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of [[Timur]]. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as [[Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād]], but also a multitude of workshops and patrons. Iranian architecture and city planning also reached an apogee, in particular with the monuments of [[Samarkand]], and are marked by extensive use of exterior ceramic tiles and [[muqarnas]] vaulting within.

==== Syria, Iraq, and Anatolia ====
[[Image:Kubadabad.jpg|thumb|Tile from the [[Kubadabad Palace]], Lake [[Beysehir]], Turkey, 1236. Karatay Museum, [[Konya]].]]
The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the [[Battle of Manzikert]] (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period.

Caravanserais dotted the major trade routes across the region, placed at intervals of a day's travel. The construction of these [[caravanserai]] improved in scale, fortification, and replicability. Also, they began to contain central mosques.

The [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]], nomads who settled in the area of [[Lake Van]], were responsible for a number of mosques, such as the [[The Blue Mosque of Tabriz|Blue Mosque]] in [[Tabriz]], and they had a decisive influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively chipped away at Byzantine territory. Little by little a major dynasty emerged, that of the [[Ottoman Dynasty|Ottomans]], who, after 1450, are referred to as the “first Ottomans.” Patronage was exercised primarily in architecture, where cupolas were deployed in an attempt to created unified spaces. The ceramic arts of this period may also be seen as the forerunners of Ottoman art, in particular the “Milet” ceramics and the first blue-and-white Anatolian works.

Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century book [[frontispiece]]s.

Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic [[epigraph]]s, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature astrological, figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and comtemporary Turkish rulers' busts), and animal images.

Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called ''[[Maqamat]]'', copied and illustrated by Yahya b. Mahmud al-Wasiti were some of the earliest "[[coffee table book]]s.<nowiki>"</nowiki> They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition.<ref>Hillenbrand, p.128-131</ref>

==== India ====
[[Image:India-Qutb-Decor.jpg|thumb|Archway from the [[Qutb complex]], Delhi, India, constructed by successive rulers under the Delhi Sultanate.]]
India, conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave-kings, seized power, marking the birth of the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. Later other competing sultanates were founded in [[Bengal]], [[Kashmir region|Kashmir]], [[Gujarat]], [[Jaunpur Sultanate|Jaunpur]], [[Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)|Malwa]], and in the north [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] (the [[Bahmani Sultanate|Bahmanids]]). They separated themselves little by little from Persian traditions, giving birth to an original approach to architecture and urbanism, marked in particular by interaction with [[Hindu]] art. Study of the production of objects has hardly begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The period of the sultanates ended with the arrival of the [[Mughal Empire|Mughals]], who progressively seized their territories. The Taj Mahal was made by Shah Jahan, a muslim king.<ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1173695057115&pagename=Zone-English-ArtCulture%2FACELayout The Taj Mahal]</ref>

=== The Three Empires ===
==== Ottomans ====
[[Image:Tile panel flowers Louvre OA3919-2-297.jpg|thumb|Ceramic tile produced in Iznik, Turkey, second half of 16th century, kept in the Louvre.]]
The [[Ottoman Empire]], whose origins lie in the 14th century, continued in existence until shortly after [[World War I]]. This impressive longevity, combined with an immense territory (stretching from Anatolia to Tunisia), led naturally to a vital and distinctive art, including plentiful architecture, mass production of ceramics (most notably [[Iznik]] ware), an important jeweler’s art, Turkish paper marbling [[Ebru]], [[Turkish carpet]]s as well as tapestries and an exceptional art of manuscript illumination, with multiple influences

The standard plan of Ottoman architecture was inspired in part by the example of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]/[[Istanbul]], [[Ilkhanid]] works like [[Oljeitu]] Tomb and earlier [[Seljuks of Rum]] and Anatolian Beylik monumental buildings and their own original innovations. The most famous of Ottoman architects was (and remains) [[Sinan]], who lived for approximately one hundred years and designed several hundreds of buildings, of which two of the more important are [[Suleiman Mosque|Süleymaniye Camii]] in Istanbul and [[Selimiye Mosque|Selimiye Camii]] in [[Edirne]]. Apprentaces of Sinan later built the famous [[Blue Mosque]] in Istanbul and the [[Taj Mahal]] in [[India]].

Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illumination include the two “books of festivals,” one dating from the end of the 16th century, and the other from the era of Sultan [[Murad III]]. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] influence; thus they may have been inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman-Safavid wars of the 16th century.

The Ottomans are also known for their development of a bright red pigment, “Iznik red,” in ceramics.

==== Mughals ====
[[Image:Indischer Maler um 1580 001.jpg|thumb|Girl with parrot, scene from the ''Tuti-Nâma-Manuscript'', 1585, Chester Beatty Library.]]
The [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] reign in India lasted from 1526 until 1828, when the English seized the country and created their protectorate. Architecture was accorded a place of honor within Mughal art, with the development of a distinctive plan and the creation of the [[Taj Mahal]]. The arts of jewelry and the carving of hard stones, such as [[jade]], were also cultivated; the series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses’ heads is particularly impressive.

The Mughals also gave rise to a magnificent art of [[Mughal painting|manuscript illumination]], in which a strong European influence may be perceived, both through the utilization of [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]] and the use of European engravings as models. Nevertheless a strong Persian influence remains, as Persian painters founded the Mughal art of the book under the reign of [[Humayun]]. This latter had taken refuge among the Safavids after being temporarily dethroned, and upon his return brought with him certain Persian painters. The influence of [[Hindu]] art may also be perceived, particularly in provincial production (the so-called “sub-imperial” paintings).

Also of note is the invention of “bidri,” a technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are set against a black background.

==== Safavids and Qajars ====
[[Image:Moschee-isfahan.jpg|thumb|Iwan, Shah Mosque, Isfahan.]]
The Iranian [[Safavid dynasty|Safavids]], a dynasty stretching from 1501 to 1786, is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman Empires in part through the Shi'a faith of its shahs. Ceramic arts are marked by the strong influence of Chinese porcelain, executed in blue and white. Architecture flourished, attaining a high point with the building program of [[Abbas I of Persia|Shah Abbas]] in [[Isfahan]], which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as [[Ali Qapu]]), an immense bazaar, and a [[Shah Mosque|large imperial mosque]].

The art of manuscript illumination also achieved new heights, in particular in the [[Tahmasp|Shah Tahmasp]] [[Shahnameh]], an immense copy of [[Ferdowsi]]’s poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting develops, based around the album (muhaqqa). The albums were the creations of conoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. The paintings of [[Reza Abbasi]] figure largely in this new art of the book.

After the fall of the Safavids, the [[Qajar dynasty|Qajars]], a Turkmen tribe established from centuries on the banks of the [[Caspian Sea]], assumed power. Qajar art displays an increasing European influence, as in the large oil paintings portraying the Qajar shahs. Steelwork also assumed a new importance. Like the Ottomans, the Qajar dynasty survived until the First World War.

===Painting gallery===
{{cleanup-gallery}}
<center><gallery>
Image:Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî 007.jpg
Image:Iran, Battle Between Kay Khusraw and Afrasiyab, by Salik b. Sa'id, 1493-1494 AD.jpg
Image:Timurid Dynasty, The Prophet Elias and Khadir at the Fountain of Life, late 15th century.jpg
Image:Syrischer Maler um 1315 001.jpg
Image:Shaybanid Dynasty, Feast of Id, Copy of Divan by Hafiz, 1523 AD.jpg
Image:Yahyâ ibn Mahmûd al-Wâsitî 005.jpg
Image:Safavid Dynasty, Joseph Enthroned from a Falnama (Book of Omens), circa 1550 AD.jpg
Image:Safavid Dynasty, Horse and Groom, by Haydar Ali, early 16th century.jpg
Image:Ottoman Dynasty, Portrait of a Painter, Reign of Mehmet II (1444–1481).jpg
Image:Ottoman Dynasty, Kneeling Angel, by Shah Quli, mid 16th century.jpg
Image:Abbasid Caliphate, Outdoor Scene of A Mad Dog Biting a Man, Arabic Translation of the Materia Medica, 1224 AD.jpg
Image:Il-Khanid Dynasty, Ardashir Captures Ardavan, circa 1330–1340 AD.jpg
Image:Mameluk Dynasty, Folio From a Copy of Al-Jaziri's Treatise Automata (1206 AD), early 14th century copy.jpg
Image:Mughal Dynasty, Sa'di in a Rose Garden, Reign of Emperor Shah Jahan, early 16th century, repainted 1645.jpg
Image:Maler der Geschichte von Bayâd und Riyâd 002.jpg
Image:Safavid Dynasty, Man Filling a Wine Cup, mid-17th century, ink on paper.jpg
Image:Safavid Dynasty, Battle Scene, by Mahmud Musawwir, 1525-1550 AD (2).jpg
Image:Portrait of Allamah Majlisi.jpg
Image:Uzbekistan, Seated Princess, by Muhammad-Sharif Musawwir, circa 1600 AD.jpg
Image:Safavid Dynasty, Woman with a Spray of Flowers, circa 1575 AD.jpg
</gallery></center>

== Notes ==

{{reflist|2}}


== References ==
== References ==
* Adkins, R and Petchey, M. (1984). ''Secklow hundred mound and other meeting place mounds in England'' in the ''Archaeological Journal'' 141: 243-251
* East Hendred Parish Council. [http://www.hendredmuseum.co.uk/pages/millennium/history.htm East Hendred Millennium Record]
* Ford, David Nash (2001). [http://www.berkshirehistory.com/villages/easthendred.html Royal Berkshire History: East Hendred]
* Hewett, William. ''The History and Antiquities of the Hundred of Compton, Berkshire''
* Williams, Howard. ''Death and Memory in Early Medieval Britain''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press


[[Category:Buildings and structures in Oxfordshire]]
'''Books and journals'''
[[Category:History of Berkshire]]

[[Category:History of Oxfordshire]]
*{{cite book | last=Ettinghausen | first=Richard | authorlink=Richard Ettinghausen | coauthors=[[Oleg Grabar]], Marilyn Jenkins-Madina | title=Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 | publisher=Yale University Press | year=2003 | edition=2nd | id=ISBN 978-0300088694}}
[[Category:Iron Age sites in England]]
*{{cite journal | last=Madden | first=Edward H. |date=1975 | title=Some Characteristics of Islamic Art | journal=Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism | volume=33 | issue=4}}
*{{cite journal | last=Mason | first=Robert B. | title=New Looks at Old Pots: Results of Recent Multidisciplinary Studies of Glazed Ceramics from the Islamic World | journal=Muqarnas: Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture |date=1995 | volume=XII | publisher=Brill Academic Publishers | id=ISBN 9004103147}}
*{{cite journal | last=Ali | first=Wijdan | authorlink=Wijdan Ali| title=From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art | url=http://www2.let.uu.nl/solis/anpt/EJOS/pdf4/07Ali.pdf | journal=EJOS | volume=4 | issue=7 | year=2001}}
* Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Art and Architecture, Thames & Hudson World of Art series; 1999, London. ISBN 978050020305.

'''Encyclopedias'''

*{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=The New Encyclopedia Britannica | publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition | year=2005 | id=ISBN 978-1593392369}}

== See also ==
{{Commonscat|Islamic art}}
* [[Christian art]]
* [[Islamic pottery]]
* [[Arabesque]]
* [[Iranian art]]
** [[Persian miniature]]
* [[Festival of Muslim Cultures]]
<br clear="all" />

==External links==
*[http://www.lslam.info/ Museum With No Frontiers]: extensive site on Islamic art
*[http://archnet.org/lobby.tcl ArchNet]: extensive site on Islamic architecture
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/virtual_civilization/default.cfm Muslim Heritage]
*[http://calligraphyislamic.com/ CalligraphyIslamic: Extensive site on Islamic Visual Art]
*[http://geocities.com/artofislam Art of Islamic: Examples of Great Islamic Artwork Throughout History]
*[http://video.google.co.uk/videoplay?docid=-5737979011492845533&hl=en-GB BBC Four documentary on art in Islamic Spain]
*[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2004/islamic/index.shtm Palace and Mosque: Islamic Art from the Victoria and Albert Museum at the National Gallery of Art, Washington]
*[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2004/artexchange/artexchange_ss.shtm Artistic Exchange: Europe and the Islamic World Selections from the Permanent Collection at the National Gallery of Art]
* [http://www.islamic-art.org Islamic Art Network - Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation]
* [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/art/index.html Islamic Art Review]
* [http://www.islamicamagazine.com/content/view/81/61/ What is Islamic Art?] an article by Lucien de Guise
* [http://arabworld.nitle.org/introduction.php?module_id=12 Art and architecture module at NITLE]
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1342_islamic_middle_east/index.php?id=1000
|title= Style in Islamic Art
|accessdate= 2007-06-16 }}
* [http://www.anindianmuslim.com/2007/11/islamic-art-at-rural-fare.html Islamic Art in India]

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[[pt:Arte islâmica]]
[[sk:Islamské umenie]]
[[sr:Исламска уметност]]
[[sh:Islamska umjetnost]]
[[sv:Islamisk konst]]
[[tg:Санъати исломӣ]]

Revision as of 23:21, 12 October 2008

Scutchamer Knob, also known as Cuckhamsley Hill and occasionally as Scotsman's Knob or Beacon Hill, is an early Iron Age round barrow on the Ridgeway at East Hendred in the English county of Oxfordshire (formerly in Berkshire).

Originally called Cwichelmeshlaew or Cwichelm's Barrow, it is recorded as having been the place where King Edwin of Northumbria killed Cwichelm of Wessex in AD 636 and, in the Middle Ages, became the meeting point of the Shire Moot (or market) which was abolished in 1620. It was long thought to be the actual burial place of Cwichelm but the mound has been excavated several times without serious finds. In 1006, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that the Danes marched to Cuckhamsley Hill as they believed that if they reached the Hill, they would never return to the sea.

References

  • Adkins, R and Petchey, M. (1984). Secklow hundred mound and other meeting place mounds in England in the Archaeological Journal 141: 243-251
  • East Hendred Parish Council. East Hendred Millennium Record
  • Ford, David Nash (2001). Royal Berkshire History: East Hendred
  • Hewett, William. The History and Antiquities of the Hundred of Compton, Berkshire
  • Williams, Howard. Death and Memory in Early Medieval Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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