International Code Council

The International Building Code (IBC) is a model building code developed by the International Code Council (ICC). It has been adopted throughout most of the United States.

History

Since the early 1900s, the system of building regulations in the United States was based on model building codes developed by three regional model code groups. The codes developed by the Building Officials Code Administrators International (BOCA) were used on the East Coast and throughout the Midwest of the United States, while the codes from the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI) were used in the Southeast and the codes published by the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) covered the West Coast. Although regional code development has been effective and responsive to the regulatory needs of the local jurisdictions, by early 1990s it became obvious that the country needed a single coordinated set of national model building codes. The nation’s three model code groups decided to combine their efforts and in 1994 formed the International Code Council (ICC) to develop codes that would have no regional limitations.

After three years of extensive research and development, the first edition of the International Building Code was published in 1997. The code was patterned on three legacy codes previously developed by the organizations that constitute ICC. By the year 2000, ICC has completed the International Codes series and ceased development of the legacy codes in favor of their national successor. In 2007 a small research project automated many features of the International Building Code at http://www.codecomply.com.[1]

Modern American building and sanitation code enforcement The disastrous New York fire of 1835 changed people’s outlook on fire protection and prevention. Pressurized water supply was essential to fight fires in large buildings. Additionally, a safe drinking water supply could also be provided by the pressurized supply of water. It seemed to many that legislation was needed to improve the standard of living. In 1842, New York provided the first pressurized water supply to buildings. Plumbing fixtures connected to sanitary drainage and water supply soon followed. Eventually, around 1850, the first toilet room became part of the architecture. Sinks and wash tubs were located in kitchens and basements. Lavatories and bathtubs were located on different floor levels connected to separate drain stacks. Water closets were located in toilet rooms accessible from outdoors. Then, in 1848, the federal government established the National Public Health Act. This included a model plumbing code that most of the world has adopted and continue to follow.

During the Nineteenth Century, there was remarkable progress in building safety. However, the trend was directed toward fire resistant buildings, while ignoring the aspect of materials and methods of construction. So, even though fire continued to destroy property and cause deaths, earthquakes, explosions, tornados, and hurricanes took their toll. Various city ordinances attempted to improve conditions through an assortment of different methods. New York City saw the creation of the Metropolitan Fire Department in 1865. The Commissioners of the District of Columbia enacted formal authority to impose building regulations in the late Nineteenth Century that included all private building construction, elevators, theaters and amusement places.

The Nineteenth Century saw fire and disease bring destruction to numerous American cities due to a general lack of planning, fire control and sanitation. Many cities suffered from devastating fires. Among these was New York (1835); Charleston, South Carolina (1838); Pittsburgh (1845); Philadelphia (1865); Portland, Maine (1866); and Boston (1872). None of these is more famous than the great fire of Chicago in 1871. In 1871, half of Chicago’s 60,000 buildings were built of wood. Around 9:00 P.M. on October 8, 1871 a fire started in Patrick O’Leary’s barn. The fire burned for two days destroying 17,000 buildings and taking 300 lives and left 100,000 people homeless. 1687 acres were burned and the fire caused an estimated $200 million dollar property loss. A steady rain finally ended the fire by extinguishing the flames. Around 60 insurance companies went bankrupt from the loss. Meanwhile, after the fire, the National Board of Fire Underwriters puts pressure on City government to enact a building code. They threatened to deny insurance through their member companies in Chicago. This may have resulted in the Building Code and Fire Prevention Ordinance of 1875. This building code was comprehensive and required plan submission, review and approval prior to construction. There were provisions for foundations, walls and roofs as well as fire escapes for dwellings exceeding four stories. In 1897, a commission was appointed to revise this building code. The next year it was adopted by the Council. Subsequent changes have enlarged the scope of this initial document.

Los Angeles was originally a Spanish pueblo with adobe serving as the most popular building material. Until 1860, lumber was rare in this area. In the latter part of the Nineteenth Century, because of the explosive growth of the region, building construction became regulated. Fire districts were initially organized in 1867. In May, 1874 a resolution codifying all provisions relating to fire districts and building regulations into one document was passed. Ordinance #100 passed in 1883 added new requirements to this code for exterior walls, party walls, thickness of masonry walls, bonding of masonry and stone, masonry specifications, foundations and other basic structural considerations. In 1888 fire escapes were required for buildings four stories or more. In 1889 a new position within City government was created: The Office of the Superintendent of Buildings. Heretofore these building codes generally were enforced by the police and fire departments.

Baltimore passed its first building code in 1859. The big Baltimore fire occurred in February, 1904. Subsequent changes were made that matched other cities. In 1904, a Handbook of the Baltimore City Building Laws was published. It served as the building code for four years. Very soon, a formal building code was drafted and eventually adopted in 1908. A fire destroyed the business district in Seattle in 1889. Since most of the buildings were wood frame, Seattle was almost completely destroyed. Initial attempts to regulate the city from fire were limited to building inspector approval. No criteria was established for his opinion regarding safety standards. In 1908 a formal building code was adopted that contained standards for material and methods of construction. After a few years of revisions, finally in 1913 a code was adopted that lasted about 29 years. Kansas City was incorporated in 1859. It was 19 years later in 1878, when the first building code was adopted that contained provisions for the types of materials and construction permitted. In 1889 a Board of Public Works was established. This board created an updated building code that was adopted in 1890. Kansas City adopted other charters throughout the years that continued to modify the earlier building code.

Up until the 1870s, water was heated for baths and cooking on wood or coal heating stoves. The early water heater was developed by equipping the firebox of the kitchen range with a water jacketed back and front connected with circulation pipes connected to a water storage tank that fed a faucet at various fixtures. In this manner, pressurized hot water was available on demand from the fixture. In 1872, a large fire in Boston called on the resources from the fire departments of several nearby communities. When they arrived to assist the Boston Fire Department, they could only watch helplessly, since their hoses and other fire fighting apparatus would not connect to the fire hydrants and engines from Boston. The next year, standardization was suggested by the International Association of Fire Engineers, (IAFE).

Because of smells, indoor plumbing fixtures did not gain wide spread acceptance. The primary reason was that no method had been effective to maintaining a water seal in fixture trap without causing back siphonage. Sewer gases escaped from the fixture causing foul odors in the room. At a Master Plumber’s Conference in 1874, a theory was introduced that air pressure in the drain and at the outlet of the fixture trap had to be the same. Keeping the pressure balanced could be maintained with a vent pipe. The theory was tested and its success made way for indoor plumbing. By 1880 the use of privies and privy vaults in back yards was discontinued. When plumbing contracting became a large business, an association was organized by these master plumbers. The name has changed over the years, but is now called, the National Association of Plumbing, Heating and Cooling Contractors.

Around this same time period, a manufacturer of animal water troughs named John Michael Kohler, had a manufacturing company in Wisconsin. He even distributed a catalog for different models he provided. A local farmer asked Kohler if he could heat a trough up to 1700º and cover it with enamel powder that would melt and provide a smooth, hard finish that would not rust. Four legs were added and the first bathtub was manufactured.

Early community sewer systems did not permit the connection of any device of fixture designed for receiving human waste. The reason for the restriction was because the system discharged into streams and rivers. Sewage treatment was practically unknown. After scientific research into biology and the discoveries on John Louis Mouras in France and the patent for the modern septic tank in 1881, new improvements were made by Edward S. Philbrook of Boston in 1883. Philbrook developed a two-chamber, round, vertical tank, equipped with a dosing syphon. This was the first septic tank used in the United States. Subsequent improvements, marred by claims of patent infringements were resolved by the turn of the century.

During the late Nineteenth Century, Thomas Alva Edison patented the first practical incandescent lamp in 1879. With electricity in buildings, questions of safety from fire damage were raised by the insurance industry as well as service groups. In 1890 the National Electric Light Association called a meeting to develop rules for the safe use of electricity. Other organizations had developed their own set of rules. By 1895 there were five separate and different codes that regulated the safe use of electricity. This caused confusion among the advocates of the safe use of electricity. A joint meeting of several different national organizations was held in New York on March 18, 1896 for the purpose of establishing some uniformity in the various laws. The group named themselves, The Joint Conference on Electrical and Allied Interests. They reviewed the five separate American codes, the German code, the Code of the British Board of Trade, and the Phoenix Rules of England. Subsequently a committee used these various codes to consolidate a single code. After review and comments from the entire membership, the code was adopted as the National Code in May, 1897.

The National Board of Fire Underwriters adopted this code as their own and renamed it the National Electric Code. After the National Conference disbanded in 1911, the National Fire Protection Association continued the duties of sponsoring the National Electric Code under the rules of the American National Standards Institute. Membership in the Electrical section of the NFPA, the National Electrical Code Committee includes a broad representation of people interested in the National Electric Code. Text development for this national code was the function of the National Electric Code Committee, one of the major subcommittees of the NFPA. In fact, the NFPA began and continues to publish the National Electric Code as an NFPA document, (NFPA 70).

Scientists and doctors advocated the use of hot water as a means of sanitation. They also suggested that bathing was a good method of improving health. Natural gas was available from public utility companies from buried supply pipes. Gas fired water heaters were invented and their use flourished. With the advent of electricity and its availability, electric pumps were created that could pump water to heights that were impossible earlier. This led to the advent of skyscrapers in New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and other cities. At the turn of the century, laws were enacted that required the installation of plumbing systems in new buildings. Also, the type and amount of each fixture was specified in law.

Even though individual cities had developed building and fire codes, there was an early movement to create a national standard as early as 1866. The National Board of Fire Underwriters was the result of a desire to “adopt measures of common benefit and general interest to the fire insurance companies of the country”. In 1896, the 104 members of the N.B.F.U. voted to draft the first edition of The National Board’s Model Building Law. It was first published in 1905. The board used their standard grading schedule to rate cities across the country and to assess deficiencies in any building code as compared to their model code. The next year, the American Society of Sanitary Engineering was founded. Henry B. Davis, chief plumbing inspector for the District of Columbia invited 25 inspectors from other American cities to meet and organize the association. The January 29, 1906 meeting held in Washington, D.C. focused on Prevention Rather Than Cure.

On April 18, 1906 the great earthquake in San Francisco devastated a significant portion of the city. Then, massive fires seemed to destroy what was left. Since there was no infrastructure to provide water to extinguish the fire, San Francisco was left helpless. The scientific and engineering community studied the causal factors of the damage. Subsequent changes to building codes are the result of investigation into the pattern of damage in San Francisco. In 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaste Company in New York City inhabited three stories in a 10 story fireproof building. A fire broke out on March 11th around 4:45 P.M. that killed 146 workers who leaped to their death or were burned or crushed to death in the panic. It was decided that more effective methods than just fire suppression. A new bureau of fire prevention was created within the fire department. Labor laws were passed that outlawed practices that led to the deaths. The Greater New York City Charter became effective that consolidated New York with Brooklyn, Manhattan, the Bronx and other suburbs becoming boroughs of New York. A bureau of buildings was established for each of the five boroughs under a superintendent appointed by a Borough President who was given power to make rules and regulations. A Board of Examiners was established to hear appeals from determinations from the Superintendent of the boroughs. That same year the Tenement Housing Act was passed. It later became the Multiple Dwelling Law. The Tenement Housing Department was given authority to check plans for tenement housing, make inspections, and order compliance with the law.

In 1916 two boards were created; the Board of Appeals and the Board of Standards and Appeals. These Boards replaced the Board of Examiners and heard appeals. During this period building codes were enforced that had been adopted since 1915 through various ordinances. The 1929 version of this code was 366 pages long and included provisions for projections and encroachments, plastering, sign structures, moving pictures, zoning, plumbing, elevators, exiting, fire retardant requirements, factories, methods of testing anti-syphon traps or fixtures, use of hydrated lime in concrete, design of reinforced concrete slabs, lodging housing, and rules for testing of wood. Charles Brady was the superintendent of the Bureau of Buildings for the Borough of Manhattan. Their office was on the 20th floor of the municipal building.

The International Association of State and Municipal Building Commissioners and Inspectors appears to have been the very first organization of building inspectors in the United States. Although it is now defunct, its leader in 1912 seems to envision a single national code. F. W. Fitzpatrick was the executive director of this organization posits the concept of a single national building code:

Legacy codes

• BOCA National Building Code (BOCA/NBC) by the Building Officials Code Administrators International (BOCA)
• Uniform Building Code (UBC) by the International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO)
• Standard Building Code (SBC) by the Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI)

Competing codes

Notably absent from the group of the IBC developers is another large player in model code development, the National Fire Protection Association. Initially, NFPA joined ICC in a collective effort to develop the International Fire Code (IFC). This effort however fell apart at the completion of the first draft of the document. Subsequent efforts by ICC and NFPA to reach agreement on this and other documents have been unsuccessful, resulting in a series of disputes between the two organizations. After several failed attempts to find common ground with the ICC, NFPA has withdrawn from participation in development of the International Codes and joined with International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO), American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and the Western Fire Chiefs Association to create an alternative set of codes. First published in 2002, the code set named the Comprehensive Consensus Codes, or C3, includes the NFPA 5000 building code as its centerpiece and the companion codes such as the National Electrical Code, NFPA 101 Life Safety Code, UPC, UMC, and NFPA 1. Unlike the IBC, the NFPA 5000 conforms to ANSI-established policies and procedures for the development of voluntary consensus standards.

The NFPA's move to introduce a competing building standard has received strong opposition from powerful trade groups such as the American Institute of Architects (AIA), BOMA International and National Association of Home Builders (NAHB). After unsuccessful attempts to encourage peaceful cooperation and resolution between NFPA and ICC on their codes disputes, a number of organizations, including AIA, BOMA and two dozen commercial real estate associations, founded the Get It Together coalition, which repeatedly urged NFPA to abandon code development and adoption efforts related to NFPA 5000 and to work with ICC to integrate the other NFPA codes and standards into the ICC family of codes.

Unfortunately, all efforts to save the development of the unified set of model codes have failed, and both NFPA and ICC began and are continuing to aggressively push for adoption of their respective documents. As a result of the unwillingness of the National Fire Protection Association and the International Code Council to cooperate on a single code, which could have been uniformly applied throughout the United States, the local governments and the nation's construction and real estate industries find themselves in the middle of the battle for code supremacy.

Notably, California adopted the NFPA 5000 codes as a baseline for the future California Building Code, but later rescinded the decision and continued to use the IBC. The main driver for this decision were increased costs involved in training architects and engineers to design for a new code, and the disparity that a different code would cause between California and the majority of other states which have adopted IBC. [2]

Overview

A large portion of the International Building Code deals with fire prevention. It differs from the related International Fire Code in that the IBC handles fire prevention in regards to construction and design and the fire code handles fire prevention in an on-going basis. For example, the building code would deal with location of exits with the fire code keeping exits unblocked. The building code also deals with access for the disabled and structural stability (including earthquakes). The International Building Code applies to all structures in areas where it is adopted, except for one and two family dwellings (see International Residential Code).

Parts of the code reference other codes including the International Plumbing Code, the International Mechanical Code, the National Electric Code, and various National Fire Protection Association standards. Therefore, if a municipality adopts the International Building Code, it also adopts those parts of other codes referenced by the IBC. Often, the plumbing, mechanical, and electric codes are adopted along with the building code.

The code book itself (2000 edition) totals over 700 pages and chapters include:

• Building occupancy classifications
• Building heights and areas
• Interior finishes
• Foundation, wall, and roof construction
• Fire protection systems (sprinkler system requirements and design)
• Materials used in construction
• Elevators and escalators
• Already existing structures
• Means of egress (see below)

Means of Egress

The phrase "means of egress" refers to the ability to exit the structure, primarily in the event of an emergency, such as a fire. Specifically, a means of egress is broken into three parts: the path of travel to an exit, the exit itself, and the exit discharge (the path to a safe area outside). The code also address the number of exits required for a structure based on its intended occupancy use and the number of people who could be in the place at one time as well as their relative locations. It also deals with special needs, such as hospitals, nursing homes, and prisons where evacuating people may have special requirements. In some instances, requirements are made based on possible hazards (such as in industries) where flammable or toxic chemicals will be in use.

Accessibility

"Accessibility" refers to the accommodation of disabled people in structures. This includes parking spaces, elevators, and restrooms.

Existing structures

Building code requirements generally apply to the construction of new buildings and alterations or additions to existing buildings, changes in the use of buildings, and the demolition of buildings or portions of buildings at the ends of their useful or economic lives. As such, building codes obtain their effect from the voluntary decisions of property owners to erect, alter, add to, or demolish a building in a jurisdiction where a building code applies.

Alterations and additions to an existing building must usually comply with all new requirements applicable to their scope as related to the intended use of the building. On the other hand, changes in the use of a building often expose the entire building to the requirement to comply fully with provisions of the code applicable to the new use. Some jurisdictions limit such application to matters of fire safety, disabled access or structural integrity, others apply an economic feasibility or practicality test, and still others exempt buildings of special use or architectural or historic significance.

Existing buildings are not, however, exempt from new requirements, especially those considered essential to achieve health, safety or general welfare objectives of the adopting jurisdiction, even when they are not otherwise subject to alteration, addition, change in use, or demolition. Such requirements typically remedy existing conditions, considered in hindsight, inimical to safety, such as the lack of automatic fire sprinklers in certain places of assembly, as became a major concern after the Station nightclub fire in 2003 killed 100 people.

Although such remedial enactments address existing conditions, they do not violate the United States Constition's ban on the adoption of ex post facto law, as they do not criminalize or seek to punish past conduct. Such requirements merely prohibit the maintenance or continuance of conditions that would prove injurious to a member of the public or the broader public interest.

Assertions by property rights advocates in the United States that such requirements violate the "takings clause" of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, have generally failed on grounds that compliance with such requirements increases rather than decreases the capital value of the property concerned.

Some states, especially those that delegate their adoption and enforcement authority to subordinate local jurisdictions, may exempt their own buildings from compliance with local building codes or local amendments to a statewide building code. Similarly, property owned by the United States Government is considered exempt from state and local enactments, although such properties are generally not exempt from inspection by state or local authorities, except on grounds of protecting national defense or national security. In lieu of submitting themselves to compliance with the requirements of other government jurisdictions, most state and federal agencies adopt construction and maintenance requirements that either reference model building codes or model their provisions on their requirements.

Some jurisdictions have enacted requirements to bring certain types or uses of existing buildings into compliance with new requirements, such as the installation of smoke alarms in households or dwelling units, at the time of sale. Some safety advocates have suggested a similar approach to encourage remedial application of other requirements, but few jurisdictions have found it economical or equitable to disincentivise property trannsactions in this way.

Many jurisdictions have found the application of new requirements to old, particularly historic buildings, challenging. New Jersey, for example, has adopted specific state amendments (see New Jersey's Rehabilitation Subcode)to provide a means of code compliance to existing structures without forcing the owner to comply with rigid requirements of the currently adopted Building Codes where it may be technically infeasable to do so. California has also enacted a specific historic building code (see 2001 California Historic Building Code). Other states require compliance with building and fire codes, subject to reservations, limitations, or jurisdictional discretion to protect historic building stock as a condition of nominating or listing a building for preservation or landmark status, especially where such status attracts tax credits, investment of public money, or other incentives.

The listing of a building on the National Register of Historic Places does not exempt it from compliance with state or local building code requirements.

Updating Cycle

Updated editions of the IBC are published on a three year cycle (2000, 2003, 2006…). This fixed schedule has led other organizations, which produce referenced standards, to align their publishing schedule with that of the IBC.

Referenced Standards

Model building codes rely heavily on referenced standards as published and promulgated by other standards organizations such as ASTM (ASTM International), ANSI (American National Standards Institute), and NFPA (National Fire Protection Association). The structural provisions rely heavily on referenced standards, especially the Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Structures published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE-7).

It is important to note that it is critical to use the corresponding editions of the reference standards as changes in parts of the reference standard are often coupled with changes in the building code. The individual referenced standards can be purchased separately from the promulgating association or a compiled standards subscription service, which keep the subscriber abreast of changes to referenced standards, is also available.

References

International Building Code 2000. International Code Council, 2000.
http://www.codecomply.com/ - An Automated version of the 2000, 2003 and 2006 International Building Code and the 2007 California Building Code.