Parfleche: Difference between revisions
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A parfleche is an [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous]], decorated [[Rawhide (material)|rawhide]] container originating from the [[Great Plains]] region in the seventeenth century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indians of the Plains|last=Lowie|first=Robert H.|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=1954|isbn=|location=New York|pages=5}}</ref> While buffalo-rawhide crafts (such as painted robes) were at their zenith during the time of [[History of the Americas#European colonization|European contact]], scholars pair the development of the parfleche with the introduction of the horse to North America, by the Spanish.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=Indian rawhide: An American folk art|last=Morrow|first=Mable|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1975|isbn=|location=Norman|pages=7}}</ref>{{Rp|88.}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Lycett|first=Stephen K.|date=2017|title=Cultural Patterns within and outside of the post-contact Great Plains as revealed by Parfleche characteristics: Implications for areal arrangements in artifactual data|url=|journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|volume=48|pages=87-101|via=}}</ref> The increased mobility and [[Plains Indians|nomadic lifestyle]] allowed by the horse, required essential goods such as preserved foods (including [[pemmican]]), clothing, and even [[Native American religion|ceremonial]] items to be transported efficiently in lightweight and weatherproof packaging.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=The American Indian Parfleche|last=Torrence|first=Gaylord|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1994|isbn=|location=Seattle|pages=29}}</ref>{{Rp|29.}} While the most common form of the parfleche was the folded envelope, they were also constructed as laced flat cases, cylinders, and trunks.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|59.}} |
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[[File:Lakota Parflech Displayed at the National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, D.C..jpg|thumb|Parfleche is a type of container made from buffalo rawhide that Plains women traditionally fashion into containers decorated with brightly colored geometrical designs.]] |
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The word "parfleche" was originally used by French [[North American fur trade|fur traders]], combining ''parer'' which means "to defend," and ''fleche'' which means "arrow”.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Lycett|first=Stephen J.|date=2015|title=Differing Patterns of Material Culture Intergroup Variation on the High Plains: Quantitative Analyses of Parfleche Characteristics vs. Moccasin decoration|url=|journal=American Antiquity|volume=80|pages=714-731|via=}}</ref>{{Rp|717.}} It was initially used to describe tough rawhide shields, but later co-opted for decorated rawhide containers.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|717.}} Many Indigenous peoples have their own names for these versatile packages, including ''hoem shot'' ([[Cheyenne|Tsehestano]]), ''nes-kes-cha'' ([[Crow Nation|Apsáalooke]]) and ''ham-wana'' ([[Arapaho|Hinono'eino]]).<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|25.}} The production of parfleche declined drastically with the near extinction of the Plains [[American bison|buffalo herds]], and the forced relocation of Indigenous peoples onto government [[Indian reservation|reservations]].<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|38.}} Some nations, such as [[Blackfoot Confederacy|Niisitapi]] continued to produce parfleche into the twentieth century.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|39.}} |
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A '''parfleche''' is a [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] [[rawhide (textile)|rawhide]] container. Enveloped-shaped perfleches have historically been used to contain items such as dried meats and [[pemmican]]. |
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The word was originally used by French fur traders, and derives from the [[French language]] ''parer'' meaning "to parry" or "to defend", and ''flèche'' meaning "arrow", so called because the hide was tough enough to be used as a shield.{{cn|date=April 2017}} |
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== Manufacture == |
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Parfleche are exceptional crafts as their historical production was almost exclusively the work of Indigenous [[Artisan|craftswomen]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title="Women's Work: An Examination of Women's Role in Plains Indian Arts and Crafts" in The Hidden Half: Studies of Plains Indian Women, edited by Patricia Albers and Beatrice Medicine|last=Schneider|first=Mary Jane|publisher=University Press of America|year=1983|isbn=|location=Washington|pages=101-121}}</ref>{{Rp|101.}} Manufacturing began with “fleshing”, or the removal of the hide from animals such as elk, deer, and most commonly [[American bison|buffalo]].<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|29.}} Craftswomen employed [[Bone tool|bone tools]] fashioned as chisels for fleshing.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Plains Indian Painting: A description of an Aboriginal American art|last=Ewers|first=John C.|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1939|isbn=|location=Palo Alto|pages=4}}</ref> Then, they stretched the hide by staking it above the ground, and scraped it to an even thickness.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|29-30.}} Next, a glutinous wash (prepared of [[Opuntia|prickly pear cactus]] juice or [[animal glue]]) was applied for protection, before the moist hide was painted.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|32.}} Until the 1890s, natural paints were overwhelmingly used and they were formed using substances such as [[charcoal]] (for black), [[algae]] (for green) and yellow [[ochre]] (for red).<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|44.}} Because artists had a limited amount of time to paint the parfleche design, they had to work with boldness and expertise as revisions were not possible.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|53.}} Once the paint was dry, the craftswomen de-haired the opposite side of the the hide using a “stoning” method, and cut the outline of the parfleche using a [[Knapping|flint]] or metal knife.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|54.}} Lastly, the container was folded into its chosen shape and holes were cut or burned to insert ties and laces.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|54.}} |
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Traditionally women are the main creators of parfleches, first painting stretched out raw hides, then shaping them into their final form. In contemporary culture, both women and men make them. |
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=== Social Influences === |
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As parfleche production was largely undertaken by Indigenous craftswomen, this effected their identities and positions in their communities.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|101.}} For instance, a female artisan who was exceptionally skilled in construction and painting, could enjoy a growth in wealth and status in her community.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|716.}} Moreover, there is evidence that Indigenous craftswomen were often organized into local [[Guild|guilds]] and had elected senior leaders who would pass on skills, knowledge and spiritual guidance to their [[Mentorship|proteges]].<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|54.}} Guilds can also be credited with the consistency in parfleche design among many nations, as they enforced rules for the creation and design of the crafts.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|105.}} |
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The bags are traditionally decorated with a distinctive style of graphic artwork, usually depicting landscape features such as rivers and mountains, and even serving as maps.<ref name=GoesInCenter>Goes In Center, Jhon (Oglala Lakota), "[http://www.conservationgis.org/native/native1.html Native American and First Nations' GIS]" for ''Native Geography 2000''</ref> |
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Modern historians note the unfortunate truth, that while parfleche are collected and admired as art pieces today, their female creators (who would have been renowned in their own communities) remain largely unknown to us.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|25.}} |
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== Distinctive Designs == |
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Parfleche have been historically recognized for their region-specific and uniquely painted designs.<ref name=":3" />{{Rp|403.}} This is consistent with the immense geographic, linguistic, and ethnic diversity of the [[Plains Indians|Plains]], where many nomadic and semi-nomadic Indigenous peoples routinely [[Human migration|migrated]] to different areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Spier|first=Leslie|date=1931|title=Plains Indian Parfleche Designs|url=|journal=Publications in Anthropology|volume=4|pages=4|via=}}</ref> This level of movement is displayed in the diversity of parfleche traits, that modern comparative studies have characterized in over twenty ways, including: the use of color, painting techniques, presence or absence of a [[Fringe (trim)|fringe]], flap shape, border designs, the number and position of tie holes, and the amount of unpainted exterior surface.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|126.}} While the most frequent decorative elements were [[Geometric shape|geometric shapes]] such as straight or curved lines, triangles, and rhomboids, the specific combinations of these shapes by different artists resulted in an endless variety of patterns.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|77.}} |
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To illustrate, while most [[Sioux|Očhéthi Šakówiŋ]] parfleche were painted in bold colors and featured heavy black outlining, the Tsehestano parfleche only used subdued colors and displayed a large amount of unpainted surface.<ref>''Small Rawhide Carrying Case, Painted Decoration.'' 1867-1899. Photograph. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge. </ref><ref name=":12" />{{Rp|92-108.}} Hinono'eino, who were allies and neighbors to both nations, borrowed equally from them, and this resulted in some of their parfleche featuring the delicate colors of the Tsehestano, while others displayed the heavy outlining of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|120.}} Apart from painted designs, there was also great diversity in form, as [[Kiowa|Ka'igwu]] were known to create large cylinders to store rolled [[War bonnet|feather headdresses]], but [[Lakota people|Lakȟóta]] only produced small cylinders to hold smaller ceremonial items.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|128.}} |
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=== Political Significance === |
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As parfleche designs reflected local preferences, scholars have suggested that they served a political role as [[Flag|flags]] for the many nations across the Plains.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}} This is plausible as they were often constructed in pairs, and hung on both sides of the horse during travel.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}} Due to their large size and bold, unique designs, they would have been easily recognized from afar by both enemies and allies.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}}<ref>Hillers, John K. ''Group of Five Near Elk-Skin's Tipi''. 1873. Photograph. National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.</ref> Research also finds that in contrast to less political objects, such as [[Moccasin|moccasins]], parfleche designs were almost never transmitted to regional enemies and only selectively borrowed by allies and trade partners.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|727.}} The geographical distribution of parfleche characteristics also reveals the key role of local trade networks, such as the [[Shoshone|Sosoni]] Rendezvous and the Middle Missouri trade system in disseminating design features.<ref name=":0" />{{Rp|95.}} |
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== Spiritual Symbolism == |
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While parfleche were largely used for the practical purposes of transporting and storing goods, their production and use could also have a spiritual aspect.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|145.}} For instance, the common geometric shape of the diamond was symbolic for the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, who believed it represented the turtle and women’s sacred power.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|246.}} Similarly, Apsáalooke believed the diamond was a symbol for the sand lizard, who was a talisman of protective power.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|246.}} In other instances, celestial symbols such as the sun, moon or morning star could also be incorporated into designs, reflecting the world views of the nation they came from.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|247.}} |
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Lastly, during the designing stage, Hinono'eino women believed they would receive spiritual assistance from the "Whirlwind Woman", who was known to be the first woman.<ref name=":12" />{{Rp|248.}} Likewise,Očhéthi Šakówiŋ women believed they would be given guidance on designs through dreams by the "Double Woman", and this sacred design would then be copied by other female artists in the community.<ref name=":02" />{{Rp|145.}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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== External links== |
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* |
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{{wikibooks|A Compendium of Useful Information for the Practical Man/Indian Lore/Indian Bags}} |
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*{{Cite web|url=http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?catids=1&objtypetxt=parfleche&src=1-5 |title=Images of parfleche in the Smithsonian's collections |publisher=National Museum of the American Indian |accessdate=September 8, 2010}} |
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{{Bags}} |
{{Bags}} |
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Revision as of 01:03, 30 November 2018
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2017) |
A parfleche is a Native American rawhide container. Enveloped-shaped perfleches have historically been used to contain items such as dried meats and pemmican.
The word was originally used by French fur traders, and derives from the French language parer meaning "to parry" or "to defend", and flèche meaning "arrow", so called because the hide was tough enough to be used as a shield.[citation needed]
Traditionally women are the main creators of parfleches, first painting stretched out raw hides, then shaping them into their final form. In contemporary culture, both women and men make them.
The bags are traditionally decorated with a distinctive style of graphic artwork, usually depicting landscape features such as rivers and mountains, and even serving as maps.[1]
See also
References
- ^ Goes In Center, Jhon (Oglala Lakota), "Native American and First Nations' GIS" for Native Geography 2000
External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: A Compendium of Useful Information for the Practical Man/Indian Lore/Indian Bags
- "Images of parfleche in the Smithsonian's collections". National Museum of the American Indian. Retrieved September 8, 2010.
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