Great Lakes and Military Medal of Honor: Difference between pages

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{{nihongo |'''Military Medal of Honor'''|従軍記章 |''jugun kisho''}} was a military decoration for meritorious service to the [[Empire of Japan]], formerly awarded to all military personnel who participated in battles in a war. These war medals and accompanying certificates specifically identify the conflict for which the decoration will have been awarded.
{{otheruses4|the North American Great Lakes|the African lakes|African Great Lakes|other uses of this term|Great Lakes (disambiguation)}}


These decorations were effectively abolished during the Allied Occupation of Japan in the post-war years (1945-1951). The plausible re-institution of a modern equivalent was made unlikely by the adoption of Japan's post-war Constitution which disavows the right of the state to engage in aggressive war; but on-going political pressure for an amending [[Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution]] renders that prospect marginally possible.
[[Image:Great Lakes from space.jpg|thumb|350px|right|A [[satellite]] image of the Great Lakes.]]
[[Image:Great-Lakes.svg|thumb|350px|right|A map showing the Great Lakes.]]


==Japanese War Medals==
The [[St. Lawrence River|Laurentian]] '''Great Lakes''' are a chain of [[fresh water|freshwater]] lakes located in eastern [[North America]], on the [[Canada–United States border]]. Consisting of Lakes [[Lake Superior|Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], and [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]], they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on [[Earth]].<ref>[http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html LUHNA Chapter 6: Historical Landcover Changes in the Great Lakes Region<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name=>{{cite book | first=Fereidoun | last=Ghassemi | coauthors=
| year=2007 | title=Inter-basin water transfer | edition=| publisher=Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 264 | location=| id=ISBN 0-52-186969-2 | pgs.}}</ref> They are sometimes referred to as inland [[seas]] or Canada and the United States' [[Third Coast]].


===1874 Formosa Expedition War Medal===
==Geography==
{{main|Taiwan Expedition of 1874}}
The Great Lakes region contains not only the five main lakes themselves, but also numerous minor lakes and rivers, as well as approximately 35,000 islands.


===1894-95 Sino-Japanese War Medal===
===Great Lakes===
{{main|First Sino-Japanese War}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" width="100%" cellpadding="5px"
|-


===1900 Boxer War Medal===
!
{{main|Boxer Rebellion}}
!Lake Erie
Imperial Edict No. 142 was issued on April 21, 1901 ordering a commemorative medal for those who had participated in the relief of the Beijing legations during the Boxer Rebellion.<ref>[http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-medals/jap_medals.htm Boxer War Medal]</ref>
!Lake Huron
!Lake Michigan
!Lake Ontario
!Lake Superior
|-
! Surface area
| {{convert|9940|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|23010|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|22400|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|7540|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|31820|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}
|-
! Water volume
| {{convert|116|cumi|km3|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|849|cumi|km3|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|1180|cumi|km3|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|393|cumi|km3|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|2900|cumi|km3|abbr=on}}
|-
! Elevation
| {{convert|571|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|577|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|577|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|246|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|609|ft|m|abbr=on}}
|-
! Average depth<ref name="Grady" />
| {{convert|62|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|195|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|279|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|283|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|483|ft|m|abbr=on}}
|-
! Maximum depth
| {{convert|210|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|770|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|923|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|808|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|1332|ft|m|abbr=on}}
|-
! Major settlements<ref>See [[List of cities on the Great Lakes]] for a complete list.</ref>
| [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo, NY]]<br />[[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland, OH]]<br />[[Erie, Pennsylvania|Erie, PA]]<br />[[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo, OH]]
| [[Sarnia, Ontario|Sarnia, ON]]<br />[[Owen Sound, Ontario|Owen Sound, ON]]<br />[[Port Huron, MI]]<br />[[Bay City, MI]]
| [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago, IL]]<br />[[Gary, Indiana|Gary, IN]]<br />[[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay, WI]]<br />[[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee, WI]]<br />[[Traverse City, MI]]<br />[[Grand Haven, MI]]
| [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton, ON]]<br />[[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston, ON]]<br />[[Oshawa, Ontario|Oshawa, ON]]<br />[[Rochester, New York|Rochester, NY]]<br />[[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto, ON]]<br/>[[Mississauga, Ontario|Mississauga, ON]]
| [[Duluth, Minnesota|Duluth, MN]]<br />[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie, ON]]<br />[[Thunder Bay, Ontario|Thunder Bay, ON]]<br />[[Marquette, MI]]
|}


===1904-05 Russo-Japanese War Medal===
{| border=0 cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 width=600 style="font-size:smaller; clear:both;"
{{main|Russo-Japanese War}}
|+ style="font-size:larger;"| '''Relative elevations, average depths, maximum depths, and volumes of the Great Lakes.'''
[[Image:Giapp.jpg|thumb|left|''Jugun kisho'' certificate given to Lieutenant [[Ernesto Burzagli]], Italian Naval Attaché, in recognition of his participation in fleet operations during the [[Russo-Japanese War]]. Burzagli was also decorated with a Military Medal of Honor for this service to the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]], as is certified by the document.]]
|-
A unique ''jugun kiso'' was ordered on March 31, 1906 by Imperial Edict No. 51<ref>[http://quanonline.com/military/military_reference/japanese/russian_war.php Russo-Japanese War Medal]</ref> in recognition of those who served in the war which occurred during the 37th and 38th years of the [[Meiji period]] -- [[Meiji era|''Meiji'']] 37-38 (1904-1905). This is more commonly known as the Russo-Japanese War.
|colspan=2|
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:595 height:250
PlotArea = width:525 height:200 left:50 bottom:15
AlignBars = justify


A rough translation of the body of the document explains:
Period = from:-1000 till:600
TimeAxis = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-1000
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-1000


:'' "A medal of honor (''jugun kisho'') is hereby given, on March 30, 1906, to [[Ernesto Burzagli]], Lieutenant of the Italian Navy, on application by the Naval Minister of Japan and with the Emperor's approval, pursuant to the Regulation Relating to the Medals Honoring Participation in Battles (1904-05). Dated April 1, 1906." ''
Colors =
id:blue1 value:rgb(0.0,0.0,0.75)
id:blue2 value:rgb(0.1,0.1,0.8)
id:blue3 value:rgb(0.2,0.2,0.85)
id:blue4 value:rgb(0.3,0.3,0.9)
id:blue5 value:rgb(0.4,0.4,0.95)
id:textinbar value:yelloworange
id:textoutsidebar value:redorange


:'' "After review of this certificate, [the presentation to Lt. Bruzagli of the Medal] has been recorded on the Roll of Medals of Honor." ''
Define $elevation = shift:(0,15) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebar
Define $avgdepth = mark:(line,textinbar) textcolor:textinbar
Define $maxdepth = shift:(0,-11) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebar


An image of the front of the medal itself is shown at the bottom center of the certificate -- crossed Army and Navy flags on either side of the Imperial Crysanthemum crest above and the Imperial Pawlonia crest below.
PlotData=
align:center


[[Image:Portarthur.jpg|thumb|right|Italian naval attaché Ernesto Burzagli aboard a Japanese naval vessel at Yokohama en route to Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War (1904).]]
bar:Superior from:-732 till:600 width:194 color:blue1
Although it is not clear from the certificate whether Lt. Bruzagli did in fact participate in the battles or the award was honorary, we know from other sources that he was aboard one of the ships which contributing to the naval bombardment and blockade of Port Arthur in 1904. He was with the Japanese naval forces which aided in the capture of that strategic objective. Burzagli went ashore at Port Arthur with the occupying Japanese forces in January 1905.
$elevation at:600 text:"600&nbsp;ft (183&nbsp;m)"
$avgdepth at:117 shift:(0,1) text:"483&nbsp;ft (147&nbsp;m)"
$maxdepth at:-732 text:"1,332&nbsp;ft (406&nbsp;m)"


===1914-20 First World War Medal===
bar:Michigan from:-348 till:577 width:113 color:blue5
{{main|World War I}}
$elevation at:577 text:"577&nbsp;ft (176&nbsp;m)"
Japanese participation in World War I was commemorated by medals created on November 6, 1915 by Imperial Edict No. 203.<ref>[http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-medals/jap_medals.htm First World War Medal]</ref>
$avgdepth at:298 shift:(0,2) text:"279&nbsp;ft (85&nbsp;m)"
$maxdepth at:-348 text:"925&nbsp;ft (282&nbsp;m)"


===Allied First World War Victory Medal===
bar:Huron from:-173 till:577 width:101 color:blue3
$elevation at:577 text:"577&nbsp;ft (176&nbsp;m)"
$avgdepth at:382 shift:(0,1) text:"195&nbsp;ft (59&nbsp;m)"
$maxdepth at:-173 text:"750&nbsp;ft (229&nbsp;m)"


===1931-34 China Incident War Medal===
bar:Erie from:359 till:569 width:49 color:blue2
{{main|Mukden Incident}}
$elevation at:569 text:"569&nbsp;ft (173&nbsp;m)"
$avgdepth at:507 align:left shift:(30,2) textcolor:textoutsidebar text:"62&nbsp;ft (19&nbsp;m)"
$maxdepth at:359 text:"210&nbsp;ft (64&nbsp;m)"


===1937-45 China Incident War Medal===
bar:Ontario from:-559 till:243 width:44 color:blue4
{{main|Second Sino-Japanese War}}
$elevation at:243 text:"243&nbsp;ft (74&nbsp;m)"
{{nihongo |The China Incident Medal| |''Sina jihen jugun kisho''}} medal was created by Imperial Edit No. 496 on July 27, 1939;<ref name="military11">[http://quanonline.com/military/military_reference/japanese/war_incident.php China Incident War Medal]</ref> and was awarded for service in China from during the 12th through the 20th years of the [[Shōwa period]] -- [[Showa (second)|''Shōwa'']] 12-20 (1937-1945).<ref>Rottman, Gordon ''et al.'' (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=aXRaj4fl4vIC&pg=PA45&lpg=PA45&dq=Jugun+Kisho&source=web&ots=Zc8Og8knQ9&sig=Ny3oS8O6deAnXS5R8U2xl3zT4wg&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA45,M1 ''Japanese Infantryman 1937-45: Sword of the Empire,'' p. 45.]</ref> An amendment was promulgated by Imperial Edict No. 418 in 1944; and the decoration was abolished in 1946 by government ordinance No. 177.<ref name="military11"/>
$avgdepth at:-40 shift:(0,2) text:"283&nbsp;ft (86&nbsp;m)"
$maxdepth at:-559 text:"802&nbsp;ft (244&nbsp;m)"


Although the [[Japanese government]] still uses "China Incident" in formal documents, media in Japan often paraphrase with other expressions like {{nihongo |Japan-China Incident|日華事変|''Nikka jihen''}} {{nihongo |or |日支事変|''Nisshi jihen''}}. These terms were used by media even in the 1930s, and the word [[Shina (word)|''Shina'']] is now construed by China as a derogatory term.
align:left shift:(35,0) textcolor:green
at:243 text:"surface~elevation"
at:-40 text:"average~depth"
at:-559 text:"maximum~depth"
</timeline>
|- valign=top
!align=right| Notes:
| The area of each rectangle is proportionate to the volume of each lake. All measurements at Low Water Datum.
|- valign=top
!align=right| Source:
| [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] <ref name=EPA>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/gl-fact1.html |title=Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1 |accessdate=2007-12-03 |author= |date=March, 9th, 2006 and French |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref>
|}


===Lake Michigan-Huron===
===1939 Border War Medal===
Lakes Michigan and Huron are hydrologically a single lake, sometimes called [[Lake Michigan-Huron]]; they have the same surface elevation of
{{convert|577|ft|m}},<ref name=nyt>{{cite book | first=John W. (ed.) | last=Wright | coauthors=Editors and reporters of ''The New York Times'' | year=2006 | title=The New York Times Almanac | edition=2007 | publisher=Penguin Books | location=New York, New York | id=ISBN 0-14-303820-6 | pages=64}}</ref> and are not connected by a river but by the {{convert|295|ft|m|adj=on}} deep [[Straits of Mackinac]].<ref name="Grady" />


===1942 China Incident War Medal===
===Rivers===
[[Image:Sarnialakeshore 02 2004 0717AB.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sarnia, ON]], the largest city on [[Lake Huron]], and the [[St. Clair River]] shoreline. The smokestacks of Chemical Valley along the river are visible in the background.]]


===1941-45 Great East Asia War Medal===
*The [[St. Marys River (Michigan-Ontario)|St. Marys River]] connects Lake Superior to Lake Huron.
{{main|Pacific War}}
*The [[St. Clair River]] connects Lake Huron to [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake St. Clair]]
A special ''jugun kiso'' was created on June 21, 1944 by Imperial Edict No. 417.<ref>[http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-medals/jap_medals-ww2.htm Great East Asia War Medal]</ref>
*The [[Detroit River]] connects [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake St. Clair]] to Lake Erie.
*The [[Niagara River]], including [[Niagara Falls]], connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario.
*The [[St. Lawrence River]] connects Lake Ontario to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]


==Selected recipients==
===Other bodies of water===
{{dynamic list}}
*[[Georgian Bay]] is a large bay located within Lake Huron, separated by the [[Bruce Peninsula]] and [[Manitoulin Island]]. It contains the majority of the islands of the Great Lakes, with a count of approximately 30,000.
*The [[Straits of Mackinac]] connects Lake Michigan to Lake Huron.
*The [[Welland Canal]] connects Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, bypassing the [[Niagara River]] which cannot be fully navigated due to the presence of [[Niagara Falls]].
*[[Lake St. Clair (North America)|Lake St. Clair]] is the smallest lake in the Great Lake system but due to its relatively small size (compared to the five "Great Lakes"), it is rarely, if ever, considered a Great Lake.


====Navy====
[[Image:ApostleIslandNationalLakeshoreWI-029-050507.jpg|thumb|right|The shoreline of a [[beach]] in the [[Apostle Islands]], Lake Superior]]
* [[Tōgō Heihachirō]], 1906.<ref>[[National Diet Library]] (NDL): [http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/e/datas/141.html?c=8 Tōgō Heihachirō]</ref>
* [[Ernesto Burzagli]], [[Regia Marina|Italian Military Attaché]], 1906.<ref>Senato della Repubblica: [http://notes9.senato.it/web/senregno.NSF/1dbf7f5088956bebc125703d004d5ffb/e85245f1a9b500214125646f00596ade?OpenDocument Ernesto Burzagli]</ref>


===Islands===
====Army====
* [[J. R. Wasson]], [[United States Army|American Military Attaché]], 1875.<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9902E2DB1730E033A25751C2A96E9C94659ED7CF "A Victory for the Chinese; Japanese Driven with Heavy Loss from Ping-yang"], New York Times,'' August 22, 1894.</ref>
Dispersed throughout the Great Lakes are approximately [[Islands of the Great Lakes|35,000 islands]]. The largest among them is [[Manitoulin Island]] in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water and home to the world's largest lake within a lake, [[Lake Manitou]]. The second-largest island is [[Isle Royale]] in Lake Superior. Both of these islands are large enough to contain multiple lakes themselves.
[[Image:Japanese General Kuroki Tamemoto and British Officier Sir Ian Hamilton.jpg|thumb|right|[[British Indian Army|British Indian]] military attaché [[Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton|Ian Hamilton]] in Manchuria with Japanese forces commanded by General [[Kuroki Tamemoto]] (1904).]]
* [[Kodama Gentarō]], 1906.<ref>Honor awarded 1907 -- [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A04E6DE1F3EE733A2575AC2A9619C946797D6CF&scp=5&sq=Order+of+the+Golden+Kite+Japan&st=p Barry, Richard. "The Passing of Japan's Supreme Genius,"] ''New York Times'', July 29, 1906.</ref>
* [[Kuroki Tamemoto]], 1906.<ref>NDL: [http://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/e/datas/70.html?c=7 Kuroki, Tamemoto]</ref>
* [[Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton]], [[British Indian Army|British Indian Military Attaché]], 1906.
* [[John Charles Hoad]], [[History of the Australian Army|Australian Military Attaché]], 1906.<ref>''Australian Dictionary of Biography:'' [http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A090318b.htm?hilite=John%3BHoad John Charles Hoad]</ref>
* [[Herbert Cyril Thacker]], [[History of the Canadian Army|Canadian Military Attaché]], 1906.<ref>[http://ia340903.us.archive.org/2/items/prominentpeopleo00stjouoft/prominentpeopleo00stjouoft.pdf ''editor unknown'' (1922). ''Prominent People of the Maritime Provinces,'' p. 193.]</ref>
* [[Granville Roland Fortescue]], American Military Attaché, 1906.<ref>Arlington National Cemetery: [http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/fortesc.htm Granville Roland Foretscue]</ref>
* [[Masanobu Tsuji]], 1939.


===Connection to ocean and open water===
The [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] and [[Great Lakes Waterway]] opened the Great Lakes to ocean-going vessels. The move to wider ocean-going container ships — which do not fit through the [[canal lock|lock]]s on these routes — has limited shipping on the lakes. Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, interrupting most shipping. Some [[icebreaker]]s ply the lakes.


* [[Teruo Nakamura]], 1974.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917064,00.html?iid=chix-sphere "The Last Last Soldier?"] ''Time.'' January 13, 1975.</ref>
The Great Lakes are also connected to the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, to the Gulf. An alternate track is via the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, to the Ohio, up the Ohio, and then through the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]] (combination of a series of rivers and lakes and canals), to Mobile Bay and the Gulf. Commercial tug-and-barge traffic on these waterways is heavy.
* [[Hiroo Onoda]], 1974.<ref>Kawaguchi, Judit. [http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20070116jk.html "Words to Live By: Hiroo Onoda,"] ''Japan Times'' (Tokyo). January 16, 2007.</ref>
* [[Shoichi Yokoi]], 1972.<ref>Kristof, Nicholas D. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 "Shoichi Yokoi, 82, Is Dead; Japan Soldier Hid 27 Years,"] ''New York Times.'' September 26, 1997; Guam: [http://ns.gov.gu/scrollapplet/sergeant.html Shoichi Yokoi]</ref>


==Notes==
Pleasure boats can also enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the [[Erie Canal]] and Hudson River in New York. The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, NY) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, NY).
{{reflist|2}}


===Boundaries===
==References==
* Peterson, James W., Barry C. Weaver and Michael A. Quigley. (2001). ''Orders and Medals of Japan and Associated States. San Ramon, California: Orders and Medals Society of America.'' 10-ISBN 1-8909-7409-9
The lakes are bounded by the Canadian province of [[Ontario]] and the U.S. states of [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[New York]]; however, not all of the lakes border on all of these regions. Four of the five lakes form part of the Canada-United States border; the fifth, Lake Michigan, is contained entirely within the [[United States]]. The Saint Lawrence River, which marks the same international border for a portion of its course, is the primary outlet of these interconnected lakes, and flows through [[Quebec]] and past the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] to the northern Atlantic Ocean.
* Rottman, Gordon L. and Michael Welply. (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=aXRaj4fl4vIC&dq=Jugun+Kisho&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''Japanese Infantryman 1937-45: Sword of the Empire.''] Oxford: [[Osprey Publishing]]. 10-ISBN 1-841-76818-9; 13-ISBN 978-1-841-76818-2


==Statistics==
==See also==
* {{nihongo|[[First Sino-Japanese War]]|日清戦争|''Nisshin sensō''}}, ''Meiji'' 28-29 (1894-1895)
The Great Lakes contain roughly 22% of the world’s fresh surface water: {{convert|5472|cumi|km3}}, or 6.0×10<sup>15</sup> U.S.&nbsp;gallons (2.3×10<sup>16</sup> liters). This is enough water to cover the 48 contiguous U.S. states to a uniform depth of {{convert|9.5|ft|m}}.


* {{nihongo|[[World War I]]|第一次世界大戦|Daiichiji Sekai Taisen}}, [[Taishō period |''Taishō'']] 3-7, (1914-1918)
The combined [[surface area]] of the lakes is approximately {{convert|94250|sqmi|km2}}&mdash;nearly the same size as the [[United Kingdom]], and larger than the U.S. states of [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Vermont]] and [[New Hampshire]] combined.


*{{nihongo|[[Manchurian Incident]]|滿洲事變|''Kyūjitai''}} or {{nihongo||満州事変|''Manshujihen''}}, [[Shōwa period|''Shōwa'']] 6-16 (1931-1941).
The Great Lakes [[coast]] measures approximately {{convert|10500|mi|km}};<ref name="Grady" /> however, the length of a coastline is impossible to measure exactly and is not a well-defined measure (see [[Coastline paradox]]).


* {{nihongo|[[Second Sino-Japanese War|Fifteen Year War]]|十五年戦争|Jūgonen Sensō}}, ''Shōwa'' 6-20 (1931-1945).
==Geological history==
[[Image:Glacial lakes.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A diagram of the formation of the Great Lakes.]]


* {{nihongo|[[Second Sino-Japanese War]]|日中戦争|Nicchū Sensō}}, ''Shōwa'' 12-20 (1937-1945).
The foundational geology which created the conditions shaping the present day upper Great Lakes was laid from 1.1 to 1.2 billion years ago,<ref name="Grady">{{cite book |last= Grady |first=Wayne |title= The Great Lakes |pgs. 42-43|publisher= Greystone Books and [[David Suzuki Foundation]]| location=Vancouver |year= 2007 |isbn= 9781553651970}}</ref><ref name=Schmus>{{cite journal
| last = Van Schmus
| first = W. R.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Hinze, W. J.
| title = The Midcontinent Rift System
| journal = Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
| volume = 13
| issue =
| pages = 345–83
| publisher =
| date = May 1985
| url = https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/104/1/fac6cit13.pdf
| doi = 10.1146/annurev.ea.13.050185.002021
| id =
| accessdate = 2008-10-06 }}</ref> when two previously fused [[tectonic plates|tectonic plates]] split apart and created the [[Midcontinent_Rift_System|Midcontinent Rift]]. A valley was formed providing a basin that eventually became modern day Lake Superior. When a second fault line, the [[Saint Lawrence rift system|Saint Lawrence rift]], formed approximately 570&nbsp;million years ago,<ref name="Grady" /> the basis for Lakes Ontario and Erie were created, along with what would become the St. Lawrence River.


* {{nihongo|[[Greater East Asia War in the Pacific|Greater East Asia War]]|大東亜戦争|''Daitōa Sensō senkum''}}, ''Shōwa'' 16-20 (1941-1945).
The Great Lakes were formed at the end of the last [[ice age]] about 10,000 years ago, when the [[Laurentide ice sheet]] receded. When this happened, the glaciers left behind a large amount of meltwater (see [[Lake Agassiz]]) which filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today. Because of the uneven nature of glacier [[erosion]], some higher hills became [[Islands of the Great Lakes|Great Lakes islands]]. The [[Niagara Escarpment]] follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin.


* {{nihongo|[[Pacific War]]|太平洋戦争|''Taiheiyō sensō''}}, ''Shōwa'' 16-20 (1941-1945).
==Climate==
===Lake effect===
The effect of Great Lakes on weather in the region is called the ''[[lake effect snow|lake effect]]''. In winter, the moisture picked up by the prevailing winds from the west can produce very heavy snowfall, especially along lakeshores to the east such as Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ontario, and New York. The lakes also moderate seasonal temperatures somewhat, by absorbing heat and cooling the air in summer, then slowly radiating that heat in autumn. This temperature buffering produces areas known as "fruit belts", where fruit typically grown farther south can be produced. [[Western Michigan]] has apple and cherry orchards, and vineyards adjacent to the lakeshore as far north as the [[Grand Traverse Bay]]. The eastern shore of Lake Michigan and the southern shore of Lake Erie have many wineries as a result of this, as does the [[Niagara Peninsula]] between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. A similar phenomenon occurs in the [[Finger Lakes]] region of New York as well as Prince Edward county on the northeast shore of Lake Ontario. Related to lake effect, is the occurrence of [[fog]] over medium-sized areas, particularly along the shorelines of the lakes. This is most noticeable along Lake Superior's shores, due to its [[maritime climate]].


==External links==
The Great Lakes have been observed to help strengthen storms, such as [[Hurricane Hazel]] in 1954, and a [[Tornadoes of 2007#May 15|frontal system in 2007]] that spawned a few tornadoes in Michigan and Ontario, picking up warmth from the lakes to fuel them. Also observed in 1996, was a rare [[subtropical cyclone]] forming in Lake Huron, dubbed the [[1996 Lake Huron cyclone]].
* Japan, Cabinet Office: [http://www8.cao.go.jp/english/decoration/index.html Decorations and Medals] -- the ''Jugun kisho'' is unmentioned in current [[schema]] of honors
* [[Japan Mint]]: [http://www.mint.go.jp/eng/operations/order/medalsofhonor.html Production Process]
* [http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-medals/jap_medals.htm Japanese War Medals of WWI]
* [http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-medals/jap_medals-ww2.htm Japanese War Medals of WWII]


{{Honors and decorations of Japan}}
==Economy==
The lakes are extensively used for [[transport]], though [[cargo]] traffic has decreased considerably in recent years. The [[Great Lakes Waterway]] makes each of the lakes accessible.

===Historical economy===
During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight. [[Barge]]s from middle North America were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the [[Erie Canal]] opened in 1825. By 1848, with the opening of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] at [[Chicago]], direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes. With these two canals an all-inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans.

The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 1800s was transporting [[immigration|immigrants]]. Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants. After railroads and surface roads developed, the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and except for ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, now has vanished.

The immigration routes still have an effect today. Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, such as Dutch, German, Polish, Finnish, and many others. Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent.

Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks, domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as [[iron ore]], [[coal]] and [[limestone]] for the [[steel]] industry. The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines. It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot. Ingredients for steel, however, are not the only bulk shipments made. Grain exports are also a major cargo on the lakes.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south on (downbound ships), and supplies, food, and coal were shipped north (upbound). Because of the location of the coal fields in Pennsylvania and [[West Virginia]], and the general northeast track of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as [[Erie, Pennsylvania]] and [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].

Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has its own language. Ships, no matter the size, are called ''boats''. When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called ''steamboats''&mdash;the same term used on the Mississippi. The ships also have a distinctive design. Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as ''[[Lake freighter|lakers]]''. Foreign boats are known as ''salties''.

One of the more common sights on the lakes is the 1,000‑by‑105&nbsp;foot (305-by-32&nbsp;m), {{convert|78850|LT|metric ton|sing=on}} self-unloader. This is a laker with a conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side.[http://www.boatnerd.com/pictures/fleet/burnsharbor.htm] Today, the Great Lakes fleet is much smaller in numbers than it once was because of the increased use of overland freight, and a few larger ships replacing many small ones.

[[Image:Le-griffon.jpg|thumb|left|A woodcut of ''Le Griffon'']]

===Modern economy===
The Great Lakes are used as a major [[mode of transport]] for bulk goods. The brigantine ''[[Le Griffon]]'', which was commissioned by [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]], was built at Cayuga Creek, near the southern end of the [[Niagara River]], to become the first sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on August 7, 1679.

In 2002, 162 million net [[ton]]s of dry bulk cargo were moved on the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain, and potash. The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships cannot pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because they are too wide. The total amount of shipping on the lakes has been on a downward trend for several years.

Recreational boating and tourism are major industries on the Great Lakes. A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of [[sailing|sailing ships]]. Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a US$4 billion a year industry with [[salmon]], [[Coregonus|whitefish]], [[smelt]], [[lake trout]], and [[walleye]] being major catches.

The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas. This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes.

===Great Lakes Passenger Steamers===
{{Main|Great Lakes passenger steamers}}
From 1844 through 1857, [[palace steamer]]s carried passengers and cargo around the Great Lakes. Throughout the 20th century, large luxurious passenger steamers sailed from Chicago all the way to Detroit and Cleveland. These were primarily operated by the Detroit & Cleveland Navigation Company. Several ferries currently operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including Isle Royale, [[Pelee, Ontario|Pelee Island]], [[Mackinac Island]], [[Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)|Beaver Island]], both [[Bois Blanc Island]]s, [[Kelleys Island, Ohio|Kelleys Island]], [[South Bass Island]], [[North Manitou Island]], [[South Manitou Island]], [[Harsens Island]], Manitoulin Island, and the [[Toronto Islands]]. As of 2007, two car ferry services cross the Great Lakes, both on Lake Michigan: a steamer from [[Ludington, Michigan]] to [[Manitowoc, Wisconsin]] and a high speed catamaran from [[Milwaukee]] to [[Muskegon, Michigan]]. [[Spirit of Ontario I|An international ferry]] across Lake Ontario from [[Rochester, New York]] to [[Toronto]] ran during 2004 and 2005, but is no longer in operation.

====Some Passenger Steamers====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Ship's Name
! Year Built
! Nationality
!
! Ship's Name
! Year Built
! Nationality
!
! Ship's Name
! Year Built
! Nationality
|-
| [[Niagara (palace steamer)]]
| 1856
| United States
|
| [[SS Christopher Columbus]]
| 1892
| United States
|
| [[SS Eastland]]
| 1902
| United States
|-
| [[Milwaukee Clipper]]
| 1904
| United States
|
| [[SS Keewatin]]
| 1907
| Canadian
|
|
|
|
|}

===Shipwrecks===
The large size of the Great Lakes increases the risk of water travel; [[storm]]s and [[reef]]s are a common threat. The lakes are prone to sudden and severe storms, particularly in the autumn, from late October until early December. The greatest concentration of shipwrecks lies near [[Thunder Bay (Michigan)|Thunder Bay]], beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge.

Two notable ships that have sunk on the Great Lakes are the [[SS Edmund Fitzgerald|SS ''Edmund Fitzgerald'']] and ''Le Griffon''. The SS ''Edmund Fitzgerald'', which sank November 10, 1975, was the last major freighter lost on the lakes, sinking just over {{convert|30|mi|km|sigfig=1}} offshore from [[Whitefish Point]] in [[Lake Superior]].

In August 2007, the [http://www.shipwreckmuseum.com/society.phtml Great Lakes Shipwreck Historical Society] announced that it had found the wreckage of ''Cyprus'', a {{convert|420|ft|m|adj=on}} long, century-old [[ore]] carrier. ''Cyprus'' sank during a Lake Superior storm on October 11, 1907, during its second voyage while hauling iron ore from [[Superior, Wisconsin]], to [[Buffalo, New York]]. The entire crew of 23 drowned, except one, a man named Charles Pitz, who floated on a life raft for almost seven hours.<ref>{{cite news |title=Century-old shipwreck discovered |url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20679934/from/RS.1/|publisher=[[Associated Press]] |date=2007-09-10 |accessdate=2007-12-03 }}</ref>

In June 2008 [[Deep sea diving|deep sea divers]] found the wreck of the 1780 [[Royal Navy]] warship, [[HMS Ontario (1780)|HMS ''Ontario'']] in Lake Ontario and has been described as an ''archaeological miracle''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Divers find 1780 British warship |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7454578.stm|publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=14-06-2008 |accessdate=15-06-2008 }}</ref> There are no plans to raise her as it is being treated as a war grave.
====See Also====
*[[Great Lakes Storm of 1913]]
*[[Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes]]
*[[List of shipwrecks#Great Lakes|List of Great Lakes Shipwrecks]]
*[[List of victims of the 1913 Great Lakes storm]]
*[[Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary]]
*[[Michigan Underwater Preserves]]

==Political Issues And Legislation==
=== Great Lakes water use and diversions ===
The [[International Joint Commission]] was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources. Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians. Some water is diverted through the [[Chicago River]] to operate the [[Illinois Waterway]] but the flow is limited by treaty. Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns. Under the U.S. "Water Resources Development Act"[http://www.ohiodnr.com/water/planing/greatlksgov/fedstatut.htm], diversion of water from the [[Great Lakes Basin]] requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors, which rarely occurs. International treaties regulate large diversions. In 1998, the Canadian company [[Nova Group]] won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw {{convert|158000000|USgal|m3}} of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries. Public outcry forced the company to abandon the plan before it began. Since that time, the eight Great Lakes Governors and the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec have negotiated the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement [http://www.cglg.org/projects/water/docs/12-13-05/Great_Lakes-St_Lawrence_River_Basin_Sustainable_Water_Resources_Agreement.pdf] and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact [http://www.cglg.org/projects/water/docs/12-13-05/Great_Lakes-St_Lawrence_River_Basin_Water_Resources_Compact.pdf] that would prevent most future diversion proposals and all long-distance ones. The agreements also strengthen protection against abusive water withdrawal practices within the Great Lakes basin. On December 13, 2005, the Governors and Premiers signed these two agreements, the first of which is between all ten jurisdictions. It is somewhat more detailed and protective, but cannot be enforced in court because enforcement arrangements can be made only between the federal governments. The second, [[The Great Lakes Compact]], has been approved by the state legislatures of all eight states that border the Great Lakes and was submitted for approval to the U.S. Congress on July 23, 2008;<ref>{{cite web | url=http://m.freep.com/news.jsp?key=290373&rc=ne | title=Great Lakes protection compact introduced to Congress | accessdate=2008-07-23 | publisher=The Detroit Freep Press }}</ref> this legislation could be enforced in U.S. federal court.

===Coast Guard live fire exercises===
In 2006, the [[United States Coast Guard]] (USCG) proposed a plan to designate 34 areas in the Great Lakes, at least five miles (8&nbsp;km) offshore, as permanent safety zones for live fire machine gun practice. In August 2006 the plan was published in the [[Federal Register]]. The USCG reserved the right to hold target practice whenever the weather allowed with a two hour notice. These firing ranges would be open to the public when not in use. In response to requests from the public, the Coast Guard held a series of public meetings in nine U.S. cities to solicit comment. During these meetings many people voiced concerns about the plan and its impact on the environment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=529028 |title= Trading shots on bullets |accessdate=2007-12-02 |author=Meg Jones |date=2006-11-08 |publisher= Milwaukee Journal Sentinel}}</ref>

A preliminary health risk assessment stated that the "proposed training will result in no elevated risks for a freshwater system such as the Great Lakes using 'realistic worst case' assumptions, and further investigation is not recommended ... if typical rather than worst case assumptions were used, the predicted risk would be even less."<ref>[http://www.house.gov/english/press_2005_2006/coastguard1206.html Representative Phil English (PA03) - English Praises Coast Guard’s Decision on Proposed Live Fire Zones<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> However, the assessment was based on lead levels after five years, and so one could infer that lead levels could meet or exceed EPA safe levels for lead after fifteen years.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://dmses.dot.gov/docimages/pdf97/413051_web.pdf |title=Preliminary Health Risk Assessment for Proposed U.S. Coast Guard. Weapons Training Exercises |accessdate=2007-12-02 |author= |year=2006 |month=January |format=PDF |publisher=engineering-environmental Management, Inc. |pages=89 }}</ref> The Coast Guard established an information page about their proposal at [http://www.uscgd9safetyzones.com http://www.uscgd9safetyzones.com]

On December 18, 2006, the Coast Guard announced its decision to withdraw the entire proposal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/18/AR2006121800596_pf.html |title=Coast Guard Target-Practice Plan Misfires |accessdate=2007-12-02 |author=Kari Lydersen |date=2006-12-19 |publisher=[[Washington Post]]}}</ref> Officials said they would look into alternative ammunition, modifying the proposed zones and have more public dialogue before proposing a new plan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06358/748661-358.stm |title=Fishing: Coast Guard reloads on firing range |accessdate=2007-12-02 |author=Deborad Weisberg |date=2006-12-24 |publisher= [[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]}}</ref>

===Great Lakes Collaboration Implementation Act ===
During the [[109th United States Congress]] in 2006, the [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_cong_bills&docid=f:h5100ih.txt.pdf Great Lakes Collaboration Implementation Act] (Bill HR5100) was introduced to enact the recommendations of the [http://www.glrc.us Great Lakes Regional Collaboration], an effort established in 2004 to produce a strategy for restoring and maintaining the Great Lakes. The bill was introduced by [[United States Senate|U.S. senators]] [[Mike DeWine]] and [[Carl Levin]], along with [[United States House of Representatives|representatives]] [[Vern Ehlers]] and [[Rahm Emanuel]].

The bill states that "the Great Lakes are on the brink of an ecologic catastrophe" and that "if the pattern of deterioration is not reversed immediately, the damage could be irreparable". It cites the closing of over 1,800 beaches in 2003, the {{convert|6300|sqmi|km2|-2|sing=on}} [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]] in Lake Erie, and the US$500 million damage each year due to the [[zebra mussel]] as evidences that "a comprehensive restoration of the system is needed to prevent the Great Lakes from collapsing".<ref name="HR5100">http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_cong_bills&docid=f:h5100ih.txt.pdf</ref>

A press release states that the bill aims to stop the introduction and spreading of [[invasive species]], prevent the [[Asian carp]] from invading the Great Lakes, phase out [[mercury (element)|mercury]], restore animal [[habitat]]s, and prevent [[sewage]] contamination.<ref>[http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/il05_emanuel/GLCIA_040506.html Emanuel (Il05) - Press Release - Emanuel, Ehlers Introduce Great Lakes Regional Collaboration Implementation Act<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

A coalition called [http://www.healthylakes.org/ Healthy Lakes, Healthy Lives] was formed by several environmental groups and foundations in 2005 to educate and assist citizens in advocating for the cleanup of the Great Lakes.

=== Additions to the five Great Lakes===
[[Lake Champlain]], a lake on the border between upstate New York and northwestern Vermont that is part of the Saint Lawrence-Great Lakes Watershed, briefly became labeled by the U.S. government as the sixth "Great Lake of the [[United States]]" on March 6, 1998, when [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]] signed Senate Bill 927. This bill, which reauthorized the [[National Sea Grant Program]], contained a line penned by Senator [[Patrick Leahy]] (D-VT) declaring [[Lake Champlain]] to be a Great Lake. Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources. The claim was viewed with some amusement by other countries, particularly in the [[Media in Canada|Canadian media]], and the lake is small compared to other Canadian lakes (such as [[Great Bear Lake]] which has over 27 times more surface area). Following a small uproar (and several ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' and ''[[Time Magazine]]''<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,987998,00.html Congress's attempt to dub Lake Champlain a 'Great Lake']</ref> articles), the Great Lake status was rescinded on March 24, 1998 (although Vermont universities continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake).

Similarly, there has been interest in making Lake St. Clair a Great Lake. In October 2002, backers planned to present such a proposal at the [[Great Lakes Commission]] annual meeting<ref>"[http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-search/we/InfoWeb?p_action=doc&p_docid=0F6AE46A916999C5&p_docnum=2&p_queryname=NaN&p_product=NewsBank&p_theme=aggregated4&p_nbid=H5DJ5FQSMTE5NzMzMzUyNS45MTQwMzoxOjEyOjE5OC4zMC4yMjguMA Does size matter? Lake St. Clair advocates believe that it deserves to be called 'great']", ''[[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]'', October 14, 2002.</ref>, but ultimately withheld it as it appeared to them to have too little support<ref>"[http://infoweb.newsbank.com/iw-search/we/InfoWeb?p_action=doc&p_docid=0F6B8D4D43205814&p_docnum=1&p_queryname=NaN&p_product=NewsBank&p_theme=aggregated4&p_nbid=H5DJ5FQSMTE5NzMzMzUyNS45MTQwMzoxOjEyOjE5OC4zMC4yMjguMA Great Lakes panel wants monster fish to stay away]", ''[[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]'', October 16, 2002.</ref>.

==Ecology==
===Ecological challenges===
Before the arrival of Europeans, the Great Lakes provided [[fish]] to the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] groups who lived near them. Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fishes; there were 150 different species in the Great Lakes<ref name="Grady" />. Historically, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes, and have remained one of the key indicators even in the current era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments. According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'', "the largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67,000 tonnes [147 million pounds]," though the beginning of environmental impacts on the fish can be traced back nearly a century prior to those years.

By 1801, the [[New York Legislature]] found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels. In the early nineteenth century, [[Upper Canada|Upper Canada's]] government found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario’s tributaries. Other protective legislation was passed as well, but enforcement remained difficult and often quite spotty.

On both sides of the Canada–United States border, the proliferation of [[dam]]s and impoundments multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts. The decline in fish populations was unmistakable by the middle of the nineteenth century, as the obstructions in the rivers prevented [[salmon]] and [[sturgeon]] from reaching their spawning grounds. The decline in salmon was recognized by Canadian officials and reported as virtually a complete absence by the end of the 1860s. The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25 percent in general fish harvests by 1875. Many Michigan rivers sport multiple dams that range from mere relics to those with serious loss of life potential. The state's dam removal budget has been frozen in recent years; in the 1990s, the state was removing 1 dam per year.

Overfishing was cited as responsible for the decline of the population of various [[whitefish]], important because of their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence. Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million&nbsp;kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million&nbsp;kg). Recorded sturgeon catches fell from 7.8 million pounds (1.5 million&nbsp;kg) in 1879 to 1.7 million pounds (770,000&nbsp;kg) in 1899. The population of giant freshwater mussels was eliminated as the mussels were harvested for use as buttons by early Great Lakes [[entrepreneurs]].

There were, however, other factors in the population declines besides overfishing and the problems posed by water obstructions. [[Logging]] in the Great Lakes region removed tree cover near stream channels which provide spawning grounds, and this affected necessary shade and temperature-moderating conditions. Removal of tree cover also destabilized soil, allowing soil to be carried in greater quantity into the streambeds, and even brought about more frequent flooding. Running cut logs down the Lakes’ tributary rivers also stirred bottom sediments. In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) was impacting fish populations.

The Great Lakes are international, and in situations that require regulation, a lack of cooperation between the U.S. and Canada might be predicted to have disastrous consequences. In the development of ecological problems in the Great Lakes, it was the influx of parasitic [[lamprey]] populations after the development of the Erie Canal and the much later [[Welland Canal]] that led to the two federal governments attempting to work together – which proved a very complicated and troubled road.

Nevertheless, despite the ever more sophisticated efforts to eliminate or minimize the lamprey, by the mid 1950s the lake trout populations of Lakes Michigan and Huron were reduced by about 99%, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame. This led to the launch of the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission.

Other ecological problems in the Lakes and their surroundings have stemmed from urban sprawl, sewage disposal, and toxic industrial effluent. These, of course, also affect aquatic food chains and fish populations. Some of these glaring problem areas are what attracted the high-level publicity of Great Lakes ecological troubles in the 1960s and 1970s. Evidence of chemical pollution in the Lakes and their tributaries now stretches back for decades. In the late 1960s, the recurrent phenomenon of the surface of river stretches (see Ohio’s [[Cuyahoga River]]) catching fire from a combination of oil, chemicals, and combustible materials floating on the water’s surface, came to the attention of a public growing more environmentally aware. Another aspect that caught popular attention was the “toxic blobs” (expanses of lake bed covered by various combinations of such substances as solvents, wood preservatives, coal tar, and metals) found in Lake Superior, the St. Clair River, and other portions of the Great Lakes region.

According to the authoritative bi-national source ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'', "only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery."

The annual [http://www.glbconference.org/ Great Lakes Bioneers Conference] held in [[Traverse City]], [[Michigan]] addresses many of these problems with local speakers, workshops and tools. The conference is a satellite conference of the [[Bioneers]] Conference in [[San Rafael, California]]. The Traverse City site focuses on durable ecological and socially just solutions to a diverse set of issues in the Great Lakes [[bioregion]].

===Invasive species===
The Great Lakes have suffered from the introduction of many [[non-native species|non-native]] and [[invasive species]]. Since the 1800s, more than 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem from around the world, causing severe economic and ecological impacts.<ref name="ISEA">{{cite web |url=http://www.greatlakeseducation.org/about_isea/?id=204 |title=Our Threatened Great Lakes |accessdate=2007-11-30 |format=HTML |publisher=Inland Seas Education Association}}</ref> According to the Inland Seas Education Association, on average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.<ref name="ISEA" />

[[Image:Zebra mussel GLERL 3.jpg|thumb|right|A [[zebra mussel]]-encrusted Vector Averaging Current Meter from Lake Michigan.]]
One such infestation in the Great Lakes was the introduction of the [[zebra mussel]], which was first discovered in 1988.<ref>[http://www.baxterbulletin.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20071128/SPORTS/711280338/1006 Baxter Bulletin - www.baxterbulletin.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The [[mollusk]] is an efficient feeder, competing with native [[mussels]]. It also reduces available food and spawning grounds for fishes. The zebra mussel also hurts utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5&nbsp;billion over the next decade.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.glc.org/ans/ |title=Great Lakes Aquatic Nuisance Species |accessdate=2007-11-30 |publisher=Great Lakes Commission |date=2007-03-27}}</ref>

Approximately 10 percent of nonindigenous aquatic species introduced into the Great Lakes have had significant impacts, both economic and ecological.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} The remaining 90 percent have potentially harmful impacts but are insufficiently researched and understood. Besides the zebra mussel, several other species have been particularly harmful. The invasion of the [[sea lamprey]], a parasite that attaches to large fishes with a sucker mouth armed with teeth that consume flesh and fluid from its prey, has resulted in substantial economic losses to recreational and commercial fisheries. Protection of the Great Lakes fishery (both native and nonindigenous species) from sea lamprey predation has required annual expenditures of millions of dollars to finance chemical control programs.

[[Alewife]], introduced through the canal systems built in the Great Lakes, littered beaches each spring and altered food webs, causing increased water turbidity. These impacts subsided with the intentional introduction of salmonids that were stocked as predators to keep alewife populations under control. The [[ruffe]], a small [[percid]] fish, became the most abundant fish species in Lake Superior's [[St. Louis River]] within five years of its detection in 1986. Its range, which has expanded to Lake Huron, poses a significant threat to the lower lake fishery. Five years after first being observed in the St. Clair River, the [[round goby]] can now be found in all of the Great Lakes. The goby is considered undesirable for several reasons: It preys upon bottom-feeding fishes, overruns optimal habitat, spawns multiple times a season, and can survive poor water quality conditions.<ref>[http://www.glc.org/ans/pdf/briefpapercomplete.pdf]</ref>

Several species of [[water flea]]s have accidentally been introduced into the Great lakes such as [[Bythotrephes cederstroemi]] and the [[Fishhook waterflea]] potentially having an effect on the zooplankton population. Several species of [[crayfish]] have also been introduced that may contend with native crayfish populations
An electric fence has been set up across the mouth of the Great Lakes across the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]] in order to keep several species of invasive [[Asian carps]] out of the area. These fast-growing planktivorous fishes are thought to have the potential to cause substantial ecological damage to the Great Lakes, through changes in the food chain and water quality. [http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/csas/Csas/DocREC/2004/RES2004_103_E.pdf]

Even more rare, there have been reports of [[bull shark]]s that have apparently made their way up the [[Illinois River]] and into Lake Michigan such as the encounter off the coast of [[Chicago, Illinois]]<ref name="GSAF">{{cite web
|url=http://www.sharkattackfile.net/spreadsheets/GSAF5.xls
|title=''Global Shark Attack File''
|publisher=Global Shark Attack File
|accessdate=2007-07-29}}</ref>.

<!-- ==Important cities along the lakes== Deleted; there's a separate list for this -->

==See also==
{{wiktionary}}
*[[Eastern Continental Divide]]
*[[Great Lakes Areas of Concern]]
*[[Great Lakes census statistical areas]]
*[[Great Lakes Commission]]
*[[Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal]]
*[[Great Storm of 1913]]
*[[International Boundary Waters Treaty]]
*[[List of cities along the Great Lakes]]
*[[Michigan Underwater Preserves]]
*[[Muskellunge]]
*[[Northern Pike]]
*[[Seiche#Lake_seiches|Seiche]]
*[[Sixty Years' War]] for control of the Great Lakes
*[[Third Coast]]
*[[Valparaiso Moraine]]

==References==
<!-- ----------------------------------------------------------
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a
discussion of different citation methods and how to generate
footnotes using the <ref>, </ref> and <reference /> tags
----------------------------------------------------------- -->
{{reflist|2}}

*Beltran, R. ''et al''. ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book''. (Washington & Ottawa: United States Environmental Protection Agency and Government of Canada, 1995, ISBN 0-662-23441-3).
*Cappel, Constance. editor, "Odawa Language and Legends: Andrew J. Blackbird and Raymond Kiogima," Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2006.
*Cappel, Constance, "The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: The History of a Native American People," Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2007.
*Dempsey, Dave ''On the Brink: The Great Lakes in the 21st Century''. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-87013-705-0).
*[[George Cuthbertson]] authored and illustrated “Freshwater, a history of the [[Great Lakes]],” (Toronto: MacMillan, 1931).
==Further reading==
*Coon, W.F. and R.A. Sheets. ''Estimate of Ground Water in Storage in the Great Lakes Basin, United States, 2006: National Water Availability and Use Program'' [Scientific Investigations Report 2006-5180]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 2006.
==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*Official [[Environment Canada]] website: [http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/greatlakes/default.asp?lang=En&n=7E5E6AF1-11 Our Great Lakes]
*Official [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] website: [http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/ Great Lakes]
*[http://www.iaglr.org/ International Association for Great Lakes Research]
*[http://www.greatlakes.org/ Alliance For The Great Lakes]
*[http://www.glc.org/ Great Lakes Commission]
*[http://www.coastwatch.msu.edu/ Great Lakes Coast Watch]
*[http://www.great-lakes.net/ Great Lakes Information Network]
*[http://www.glu.org/ Great Lakes United]
*[http://www.healthylakes.org/ Healthy Lakes, Healthy Lives]
*Canada and United States [http://www.ijc.org/ Internation Joint Commission]
*[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] Archives: [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1390/science_technology/great_lakes_pollution/ Trouble Waters: Pollution in the Great Lakes]
*[http://www.ppl.nl/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82 Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law] Peace Palace Library


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[[Category:Orders, decorations, and medals of Japan]]
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[[Category:Military awards and decorations of Japan]]
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[[Category:Imperial Japanese Army]]
[[Category:Imperial Japanese Navy]]


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Revision as of 05:10, 10 October 2008

Military Medal of Honor (従軍記章, jugun kisho) was a military decoration for meritorious service to the Empire of Japan, formerly awarded to all military personnel who participated in battles in a war. These war medals and accompanying certificates specifically identify the conflict for which the decoration will have been awarded.

These decorations were effectively abolished during the Allied Occupation of Japan in the post-war years (1945-1951). The plausible re-institution of a modern equivalent was made unlikely by the adoption of Japan's post-war Constitution which disavows the right of the state to engage in aggressive war; but on-going political pressure for an amending Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution renders that prospect marginally possible.

Japanese War Medals

1874 Formosa Expedition War Medal

Main article: Taiwan Expedition of 1874

1894-95 Sino-Japanese War Medal

Main article: First Sino-Japanese War

1900 Boxer War Medal

Main article: Boxer Rebellion

Imperial Edict No. 142 was issued on April 21, 1901 ordering a commemorative medal for those who had participated in the relief of the Beijing legations during the Boxer Rebellion.[1]

1904-05 Russo-Japanese War Medal

Main article: Russo-Japanese War
Jugun kisho certificate given to Lieutenant Ernesto Burzagli, Italian Naval Attaché, in recognition of his participation in fleet operations during the Russo-Japanese War. Burzagli was also decorated with a Military Medal of Honor for this service to the Imperial Japanese Navy, as is certified by the document.

A unique jugun kiso was ordered on March 31, 1906 by Imperial Edict No. 51[2] in recognition of those who served in the war which occurred during the 37th and 38th years of the Meiji period -- Meiji 37-38 (1904-1905). This is more commonly known as the Russo-Japanese War.

A rough translation of the body of the document explains:

"A medal of honor (jugun kisho) is hereby given, on March 30, 1906, to Ernesto Burzagli, Lieutenant of the Italian Navy, on application by the Naval Minister of Japan and with the Emperor's approval, pursuant to the Regulation Relating to the Medals Honoring Participation in Battles (1904-05). Dated April 1, 1906."
"After review of this certificate, [the presentation to Lt. Bruzagli of the Medal] has been recorded on the Roll of Medals of Honor."

An image of the front of the medal itself is shown at the bottom center of the certificate -- crossed Army and Navy flags on either side of the Imperial Crysanthemum crest above and the Imperial Pawlonia crest below.

Italian naval attaché Ernesto Burzagli aboard a Japanese naval vessel at Yokohama en route to Port Arthur during the Russo-Japanese War (1904).

Although it is not clear from the certificate whether Lt. Bruzagli did in fact participate in the battles or the award was honorary, we know from other sources that he was aboard one of the ships which contributing to the naval bombardment and blockade of Port Arthur in 1904. He was with the Japanese naval forces which aided in the capture of that strategic objective. Burzagli went ashore at Port Arthur with the occupying Japanese forces in January 1905.

1914-20 First World War Medal

Main article: World War I

Japanese participation in World War I was commemorated by medals created on November 6, 1915 by Imperial Edict No. 203.[3]

Allied First World War Victory Medal

1931-34 China Incident War Medal

Main article: Mukden Incident

1937-45 China Incident War Medal

Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War

The China Incident Medal (Sina jihen jugun kisho) medal was created by Imperial Edit No. 496 on July 27, 1939;[4] and was awarded for service in China from during the 12th through the 20th years of the Shōwa period -- Shōwa 12-20 (1937-1945).[5] An amendment was promulgated by Imperial Edict No. 418 in 1944; and the decoration was abolished in 1946 by government ordinance No. 177.[4]

Although the Japanese government still uses "China Incident" in formal documents, media in Japan often paraphrase with other expressions like Japan-China Incident (日華事変, Nikka jihen) or (日支事変, Nisshi jihen). These terms were used by media even in the 1930s, and the word Shina is now construed by China as a derogatory term.

1939 Border War Medal

1942 China Incident War Medal

1941-45 Great East Asia War Medal

Main article: Pacific War

A special jugun kiso was created on June 21, 1944 by Imperial Edict No. 417.[6]

Selected recipients

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Navy

Army

British Indian military attaché Ian Hamilton in Manchuria with Japanese forces commanded by General Kuroki Tamemoto (1904).


Notes

  1. ^ Boxer War Medal
  2. ^ Russo-Japanese War Medal
  3. ^ First World War Medal
  4. ^ a b China Incident War Medal
  5. ^ Rottman, Gordon et al. (2005). Japanese Infantryman 1937-45: Sword of the Empire, p. 45.
  6. ^ Great East Asia War Medal
  7. ^ National Diet Library (NDL): Tōgō Heihachirō
  8. ^ Senato della Repubblica: Ernesto Burzagli
  9. ^ "A Victory for the Chinese; Japanese Driven with Heavy Loss from Ping-yang", New York Times, August 22, 1894.
  10. ^ Honor awarded 1907 -- Barry, Richard. "The Passing of Japan's Supreme Genius," New York Times, July 29, 1906.
  11. ^ NDL: Kuroki, Tamemoto
  12. ^ Australian Dictionary of Biography: John Charles Hoad
  13. ^ editor unknown (1922). Prominent People of the Maritime Provinces, p. 193.
  14. ^ Arlington National Cemetery: Granville Roland Foretscue
  15. ^ "The Last Last Soldier?" Time. January 13, 1975.
  16. ^ Kawaguchi, Judit. "Words to Live By: Hiroo Onoda," Japan Times (Tokyo). January 16, 2007.
  17. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. "Shoichi Yokoi, 82, Is Dead; Japan Soldier Hid 27 Years," New York Times. September 26, 1997; Guam: Shoichi Yokoi

References

  • Peterson, James W., Barry C. Weaver and Michael A. Quigley. (2001). Orders and Medals of Japan and Associated States. San Ramon, California: Orders and Medals Society of America. 10-ISBN 1-8909-7409-9
  • Rottman, Gordon L. and Michael Welply. (2005). Japanese Infantryman 1937-45: Sword of the Empire. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. 10-ISBN 1-841-76818-9; 13-ISBN 978-1-841-76818-2

See also

  • Pacific War (太平洋戦争, Taiheiyō sensō), Shōwa 16-20 (1941-1945).

External links

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