Graphology

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Graphology is the study and analysis of handwriting especially in relation to human psychology. The term is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to forensic document examination. In the medical field, it is used to refer to the study of handwriting as an aid in diagnosis, and tracking of diseases of the brain, and nervous system.

Although supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of thousands of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, empirical studies usually fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.[1] This may disqualify graphology as a job recruitment tool or court evidence. Due to the nature of statistical hypothesis testing, the power of which increases with the number of candidates, the influence of personality on handwriting may yet be shown in studies averaging the personalities of a group of people.

Graphology may also be described as an orthographical study, embracing the ideas that writing systems operate on style and form.

Basic tenets

Graphology is based upon the following basic assertions:

  • When we write, the ego is active but it is not always active to the same degree. Its activity waxes and wanes; being at its highest level when an effort has to be made by the writer and at its lowest level when the motion of the writing organ has gained momentum and is driven by it.
  • When the action of writing is comparatively difficult, the writer uses those forms of letters which are simpler or more familiar.
  • The muscular movements involved in writing are under the direct influence of the central nervous system. The form of the resultant writing movement is modified further by the flexibly assembled coordinative structures in the hand, arm, and shoulder; which follow the principles of dynamical systems. The specific writing organ (mouth, foot, hand,crook of elbow) is irrelevant if it functions normally and is sufficiently adapted to its function.
  • The neurophysiological mechanisms which contribute to the written movement are related to conditions within the central nervous system and vary in accordance with them. The written strokes, therefore, reflect both transitory and long term changes in the central nervous system such as Parkinson's disease, or alcohol usage.
  • The movements and corresponding levels of muscular tension in writing are mostly outside of conscious control and subject to the ideomotor effect. Emotion, mental state, and biomechanical factors such as muscle stiffness and elasticity are reflected in a person's handwriting.
  • One must examine the handwriting or drawing movements by considering them as movements organized by the central nervous system and produced under biomechanical and dynamical constraints. Given these considerations, graphologists proceed to evaluate the pattern, form, movement, rhythm, quality, and consistency of the graphic stroke in terms of psychological interpretations. Such interpretations vary according to the graphological theory applied by the analyst.
  • Most schools of thought in graphology concur that a single graphological element can be a component of many different clusters, with each cluster having a different psychological interpretation. The significance of the cluster can be assessed accurately by tracing each component of the cluster back to their origins and adapting the meaning of the latter to the conditions of the milieu in which the form appears.

Approaches to graphology

Integrative graphology
This approach holds that specific stroke structures relate to personality traits. Most systems within this approach use a cluster of stroke formations, to score a specific personality trait. Systems that fall under this umbrella are: fixed signs, trait stroke, French System and Graphoanalysis®. It has been described as starting from the inside, and working to the outside.
Holistic graphology
This is commonly, but incorrectly referred to as Gestalt Graphology. Gestalt Graphology was a system of handwriting analysis developed circa 1915 in Germany. In this approach (Holistic Graphology) a profile is constructed on the basis of Form, Movement and Space. It has been described as starting from the outside, and working to the inside.
Symbolic analysis
In this approach, one looks for symbols seen in the handwriting. This can be either Major symbolism, or Minor Symbolism.
  • Major symbolism is the meaning ascribed to the stroke, as it related to the page.
  • Minor symbolism ascribes a meaning to the stroke, depending upon the picture that the stroke draws. For example, John Wayne's signature shows a blackened out portion, that represents his lung cancer.
This approach provides the theory that underlies both Holistic Graphology, and Integrative Graphology. Max Pulver[2]

[3] [4] [5] is the best known exponent of this system.

Systems of handwriting analysis

Each approach to handwriting analysis has spawned several different systems.

  • Integrative Graphology
    • Graphoanalysis was the most influential system in the United States, between 1929 and 2000.
  • Holistic Graphology
  • Other / Not Yet Classified

Training

The only academic institutions in the world that offer an accredited degree in handwriting analysis are:

Training in the United States is available through correspondence courses. The quality and legality of graphological courses varies tremendously.

Writing systems

The majority of material in the field is oriented towards the Latin Writing system.

  • In Israel, it is a safe assumption that the Hebrew, Latin, and Cyrillic Writing systems will be covered.
  • For Eastern Europe, and Russia, it is a safe assumption that either the Latin and Cyrillic Writing system or only the Cyrillic Writing system will be covered.
  • For Western Europe, North America, and South America, it is a safe assumption that only the Latin Writing system will be covered.
  • For the rest of the world, the odds are that only the Latin writing will be covered. This may, but usually is not applicable to the local writing system.

Before taking any course, or certification, ensure that it is usable for the local writing system.

Certification

There is no certification that is generally recognized, either within or without the field. Certifications are invariably linked to the organization one belongs to, and are no longer recognized when one resigns from the organization.

Vocabulary

Every system of handwriting analysis has its own vocabulary. Even though two or more systems may share the same words, the meanings of those words may be different. Except in very rare instances, the technical meaning of a word used by a handwriting analyst, and the common meaning are not congruent. Resentment, for example, in common usage, means to feel or exhibit annoyance. In Graphoanalysis, the term indicates a fear of imposition.[20][21]

Validity

The scientific foundation of graphology can be documented in reviews of the literature, such as Fluckinger, Tripp & Weinberg(1961) [22] , Lockowandte (1976) [23] and Nevo(1986)[24]

Going through the published research, Crumbaugh & Stockholm[25] stands out as being one of the few studies that supports handwriting analysis.

Far more common are studies such as Ben-Shakar, Bar-Hillel, Blum, Ben-Abba, & Flug[26] which indicates that graphology has little or no validity.

Specific objections

  • The Barnum Effect -- which is a problem for validating most, if not all methods of personality testing. See, for example, Tallent(1958)[27] on clinical evaluations, and how easily they can become non-individualized.
  • Related to this is the Dr Fox Effect [28] and the Aunt Fanny Effect. Both of these are also side effects of graphology having extremely high face validity. These can only be overcome by individual handwriting analysts learning how to write individualized graphological reports.
  • Effect Size: This is Dean's(1992)[29][30] only substantial argument against the use of graphology. The effect size is too small. In other words, the interpretations made for a specific individual may not be useful although they may accurately reflect characteristics found in many members of a large group. Beyerstein & Beyerstein (1992)surveyed studies finding no validity to interpretations of handwriting analysis, concluding that handwriting analysis was useless at best. They neglected to note the challenges involved in evaluating any complex motor behavior, and, in particular, they ignored glaring problems in research design, methodology, operational definitions, and assumptions of the studies cited in support of their argument.
  • Vagueness: One of the key points of attack for critics is the ease with which a graphologist can alter the "rules." Formniveau, for example, interprets a sign positively if the individual is high status, and negatively if the individual has low status.

Legal considerations

Privacy

Very often graphologists will claim that handwriting analysis in the workplace is legal[31], and cite one or more of the following cases: 

   * Gilbert v California :388 US 263-267 (1967)
   * US v Dionisio :410 US 1 (1973) 1973, Lawyers Edition, Second Series 35, 67; 93 SC 774
   * US v Mara aka Marasovich :410 US 19 (1973)
   * US v Rosinsky :547 F 2nd 249 ( CA 4th 1977 )
   * United States v Wade  :388 US 218, 221-223 (1967)

These cases are about Fifth Amendment rights in a criminal investigation.

These cases do not address issues relating to psychological analysis of an individual.

These cases do not address third party issues.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)

Many graphologists will claim that handwriting analysis is non-discriminatory, since it cannot determine Gender, Age, Ethnicity, or other EEOC Protected Classes.[32] Thus far, there have been no studies demonstrating that the use of handwriting analysis in employment does not have a disparate impact upon EEOC protected classes.

There have been a number of studies on gender[33][34][35][36] and handwriting. Uniformly the research indicates that gender can be determined at a significant level. The published studies on ethnicity[37][38][39], race[40][41][42], age[43][44][45], nationality[46], gender orientation, weight, and their relationship to handwriting have had mixed results, with a tendency to indicate that they can be determined from handwriting.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

One of the rules of thumb in human resources is that if an individual who has an ADA-defined disability cannot take a test, then nobody can. As a result, tests that cannot be adapted for use by those individuals will not be used by a company.

Handwriting clearly falls into the group of tests that cannot be adapted to be administered to individuals who fall within one or more ADA-defined disabilities. Blind people, for example, do not develop the required fluency in handwriting, for the writing to be correctly analyzed.

Questions that Handwriting Analysts ask before doing an analysis can be illegal under this act.[47]

Graphology in Court Testimony

Cameron v Knapp, 137 Misc. 2d 373, 520 N.Y.S.2d 917 (Sup. Ct. N.Y. Co. 1987) (handwriting expert may testify as to the authenticity of a writing but not as to an individual's physical or mental condition based on a handwriting sample) stands as current U.S. case law for the rejection of graphology as psychological testimony.

Carroll v State [276 Ark 160; 634 SW 2d 99, 101-102 (1982)] will be remembered for it's implications on the propriety of allowing graphologists to testify. The opposing Handwriting Analysts displayed a distinct lack of professional courtesy to each other. In doing so, they undermined the scientifc validity of both Integrative Graphology and Holistic Graphology.[48]

Daubert

Daubert defined several criteria that admissible expert testimony has to meet.

  • Be falsifiable, refutable, and testable;
  • Be valid and reliable;
  • Subject to published peer review;
  • Held to standards within the field;
  • Be generally accepted in the Scientific Community;

Depending upon the specific system of handwriting analysis that is used, it fails between two and five criteria.

Applications of graphology

Employment profiling

A company takes a writing sample provided by an applicant, and proceeds to do a personality profile, matching the congruency of the applicant with the ideal psychological profile of employees in the position.[49]

A graphological report is meant to be used in conjunction with other tools, such as comprehensive background checks, practical demonstration or record of work skills. Graphology supporters state that it can complement but not replace traditional hiring tools.

Research in employment suitability has ranged from complete failure [50] to guarded success.[51] The most substantial reason for not using handwriting analysis in the employment process is the absence of evidence of a direct link between handwriting analysis and various measures of job performance[52]

The use of graphology in the hiring process has been criticized on ethical grounds[53] and on legal grounds.[54]

Business compatibility

This is an additional service offered by some handwriting analysts. The focus of these reports can be one, or more of the following:

Company-wide
This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the company.
The average company employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire company are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with the focus being how good a fit the individual is.
Division wide
This is a report that describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the division.
The average division employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire division are used, to create three hypothetical employees. The individual is then compared to these three employees, with focus being how well the individual will fit into the existing company psychodynamic profile.
Unit wide
This is a report the describes how compatible the individual is, with each employee in the unit.
The average unit employee
For this report, the mean, mode, and median scores of every scored data point , for the entire unit are used, to create three hypothetical employees. Those are then compared to the applicant, with a focus on how good a fit the individual is.
The unit manager / Co-worker
This explores the differences in personal style between a manager/co-worker and potential employee. The end result is on how each can maximize productivity and minimize personal friction.
Composite reports
This explores the difference in personal style between every employee in a group. The idea is for each member of the group to learn not only their own strengths and weakness, but also those of their co-workers, and how they can more harmoniously work together. The resulting reports not only deal with the individual on a one-to-one level within the group, but also each individual as a part of a group of three, four, five, etc people within the group.

The content of these reports can range from a simple perspectrograph, to a four wheel Wittlich Diagram and accompanying twenty five thousand word analysis.

Psychological analysis

These reports can range from a ten item check off list to a 25 page report on the makeup of an individual from the perspective of Freudian Psychoanalysis, Transactional Analysis[55], or another personality theory.

A major value of a graphological analysis lies in the increased understanding of people and the ability consequently to enjoy improved relationships both personally and professionally.[56]

Marital compatibility

In its simplest form only sexual expression and sexual response are examined. At its most complex, every aspect of an individual is examined for how it affects the other individual(s). The basic theory is that knowing and understanding how each other are different, any commitment that is made will be more enduring. Typically done for couples, it is not unknown for a polyamorous group to obtain a report prior to the commitment ceremony of a new individual.

In cultures where arranged marriages are common, graphology can be used as an additional checkpoint on the compatibility of the couple prior to the elders giving their consent for the marriage to take place.

Medical diagnosis

Medical graphology [57] is probably the most controversial aspect of handwriting analysis. Strictly speaking, such research is not graphology as described throughout this report but an examination of factors pertaining to motor control. Research studies have been conducted in which a detailed examination of handwriting factors, particularly timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are considered in the process of evaluating patients and their response to pharmacological therapeutic agents. [58]. These types of assessments are distinct from the assessments of graphologists who purport to assess personality factors from handwriting. Timing, fluidity, pressure, and consistency of size, form, speed, and pressure are studied by researchers studying fine motor control processes to understand the function of the nervous system and anatomical and biomechanical features of the writer. Graphologists, as observers of handwriting, have described features of handwriting of individuals who meet clearly defined diagnostic criteria, most often in single case studies. Clinical research studies are needed to determine whether such observations are supported in wider-scale motor control experiments.

Alfred Kanfer published several papers[59][60] whose implication was that cancer could be detected using detailed examination of handwriting under the microscope, prior to standard medical tests available at the time he treated patients. Kanfer reported successful results but subsequent efforts to replicate the studies were unsuccessful.

The Vanguard Code of Ethical Practice, amongst others, prohibits medical diagnosis unless one is also licensed to do diagnosis in the state in which they practice.

Jury screening

A graphologist is given handwriting samples of a prospective jury and determines who should be struck, based upon their alleged personality profile. After the trial has begun, the graphologist advises counsel on how to slant their case, for the most favorable response from the jury.[61]

Graphotherapy

This is the practice of changing a person's handwriting with the goal of changing features of his or her personality. It was pioneered in France during the nineteen-thirties, spreading to the United states in the late fifties. [62][63]

The therapy consists of a series of exercises which are similar to those taught in basic calligraphy courses, sometimes in conjunction with music or positive self-talk. There have been anecdotal reports of these exercises curing everything from drug addiction[62] to anorexia nervosa,[64] 

and back to borderline personality disorder.[62]

Forensic document examination

This discipline is better known as questioned document examination within the judicial system. This is used to determine whether or not a document was written by the person who is thought to have written it. As such, this is not an aspect of graphology.

Goodtitle Drevett v Braham 100 Eng Rep 1139 (1792) is reportedly the first case at which the testimony of a questioned document examiner was accepted.

Divination

Some individuals believe that one can tell the future from handwriting analysis. Others believe that a handwriting analyst can provide spiritual guidance on situations that they face. Reasons why these beliefs are claimed to be false range from the complete lack of either scientific or anecdotal evidence, to the application of Aristotelean logic to any of the numerous (and mutually incompatible) theories of handwriting analysis. Most graphologists reject supernatural insights from their assessment of handwriting.

The code of ethics for the International Graphoanalysis Society, British Association of Graphology, and Association Déontologique Européenne de Graphologie prohibits the practice of anything related to the occult.

References

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  61. ^ |Kimon Iannetta
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  64. ^ Laufer, Ron (1991), AHAF Convention, Tucson, AZ{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

See also

Systems of handwriting analysis

Graphologist

Organizations of handwriting analysts

Related fields

External links

Template:Link FA

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