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'''Florence Finch''' ([[December 22]], [[1893]] – [[April 10]], [[2007]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] born [[New Zealand]] [[supercentenarian]].
{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Roman emperor
| name = Nero
| title = [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] of the [[Roman Empire]]
| full name = Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus <br />(from birth to AD 50); <br />Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus (from 50 to accession); <br />Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (as emperor)
| image = [[Image:Nero Glyptothek Munich 321.jpg|250px]]
| caption = Nero at [[Glyptothek]], [[Munich]]
| reign = [[October 13]], [[54]] &ndash; [[June 9]], [[68]]<br />([[Proconsul]] from 51)
| predecessor = [[Claudius]]
| successor = [[Galba]]
| heir =
| spouse 1 = [[Claudia Octavia]]
| spouse 2 = [[Poppaea Sabina]]
| spouse 3 = [[Statilia Messalina]]
| issue = [[Claudia Augusta]]
| dynasty = [[Julio-Claudian Dynasty|Julio-Claudian]]
| father = [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]
| mother = [[Agrippina the Younger]]
| date of birth = {{birth date|37|12|15|mf=y}}
| place of birth = [[Anzio|Antium]]
| date of death = {{Death date and age|68|6|9|37|12|15}}
| place of death = Just outside [[Rome]]
| place of burial = Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, [[Pincian Hill]], [[Rome]]
|}}


Finch moved to New Zealand permanently in 1969.<ref>http://www.stuff.co.nz/northland/3909562a11.html</ref>
'''Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''' ([[December 15]], [[37]] – [[June 9]], [[68]]),<ref>Nero's birth day is listed in Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#6 6]. His death day is uncertain, though, perhaps because Galba was declared emperor before Nero lived. A June 9th death day comes from Jerome, ''Chronicle'', which lists Nero's rule as 13 years, 7 months and 28 days. Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' LXII.3 and Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' IV, say Nero's rule was 13 years, 8 months which would be June 11th</ref> born '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', also called '''Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus''', was the fifth and final [[Roman emperor]] of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]. Nero was adopted by his great uncle [[Claudius]] to become heir to the throne. As Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, he succeeded to the throne on [[October 13]], [[54]], following Claudius' death.


She holds the [[national longevity recordholders#New Zealand|longevity record]] for New Zealand. Finch was born in [[London]] and, although nearly [[deafblindness|deafblind]], celebrated her 113th birthday in [[Hastings, New Zealand]].
Nero ruled from 54 to 68, focusing much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign included a [[Roman–Parthian War of 58–63‎|successful war]] and negotiated peace with the [[Parthian Empire]] (58–63), the suppression of the [[Boudicca#Boudica's uprising|British revolt]] (60–61) and improving relations with Greece. In 68 a military coup drove Nero from the throne. Facing execution, he committed [[suicide]].<ref>Suetonius claims that Nero committed suicide in Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#49 49]; Sulpicius Severus, who possibly used Tacitus' lost fragments as a source, reports that is was uncertain whether Nero committed suicide, Sulpicius Severus, ''Chronica'' II.29, also see T.D. Barnes, "The Fragments of Tacitus' Histories", ''Classical Philology'' (1977), p.228</ref>


She died of cardio respiratory failure.<ref>[http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/1/story.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10433639 NZ's oldest person dies at 113 - 11 Apr 2007 - NZ Herald: New Zealand National news<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> At the time of her death, Finch was [[oldest people|the sixth-oldest verified living person in the world]].
Nero's rule is often associated with tyranny and extravagance.<ref>Galba criticized Nero's ''luxuria'', both his public and private excessive spending, during rebellion, Tacitus, ''Annals'' I.16; Kragelund, Patrick, "Nero's Luxuria, in Tacitus and in the Octavia", ''The Classical Quarterly'', 2000, p. 494-515</ref> He is known for a number of executions, including those of his mother<ref>References to Nero's matricide appear in the ''Sibylline Oracles'' 5.490-520, Geoffrey Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales'' The Monk's Tale, and William Shakespeare's ''Hamlet'' 3.ii</ref> and adoptive brother, as the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned",<ref name="fiddle">Nero was not a fiddle player, but a lyre player. Suetonius claims Nero played the lyre while Rome burned, see Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#38 38]; For a detailed explanation of this transition see M.F. Gyles "Nero Fiddled while Rome Burned", ''The Classical Journal'' (1948), p. 211-217 [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/journals/CJ/42/4/Nero_Fiddled*.html]</ref> and as an early persecutor of [[Christians]]. This view is based upon the main surviving sources for Nero's reign — [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]]. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light.<ref>These include Lucan's ''Civil War'', Seneca the Younger's ''On Mercy'' and Dio Chrysostom's ''Discourses'' along with various Roman coins and inscriptions</ref> Some sources, though, including those mentioned above, portray him as an emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the East.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' I.4, I.5, I.13, II.8; Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero 57, Life of Otho 7, Life of Vitellius 11; Philostratus II, ''The Life of Apollonius'' 5.41; Dio Chrysostom, ''Discourse XXI'', On Beauty</ref>


==See also==
The study of Nero is problematic as some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on Nero's alleged tyrannical acts.<ref>On fire and Christian persecution, see F.W. Clayton, "Tacitus and Christian Persecution", ''The Classical Quarterly'', p. 81-85; B.W. Henderson, ''Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero'', p. 437; On general bias against Nero, see Edward Champlin, ''Nero'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003, p. 36-52 (ISBN 0-674-01192-9)</ref>


* [[National longevity recordholders]]
==Early life==
* [[Oldest people]]
{{Julio-Claudian dynasty}}
* [[Supercentenarian]]
===Family===
Nero was born with the name Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on [[December 15]], AD 37, in [[Antium]], near Rome.<ref name="suetonius-nero-1">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#1 1]</ref><ref name="suetonius-nero-6">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#6 6]</ref> He was the only son of [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Agrippina the Younger]], sister of emperor [[Caligula]].

Lucius' father was the grandson of [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Aemilia Lepida]] through their son [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC)|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]]. Gnaeus was a grandson to [[Mark Antony]] and [[Octavia Minor]] through their daughter [[Antonia Major]]. Through Octavia, he was the grand-nephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a [[praetor]] and was a member of Caligula's staff when the future-emperor traveled to the East.<ref name="suetonius-nero-5">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#5 5]</ref> Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by emperor [[Tiberius]] with treason, adultery, and incest.<ref name="suetonius-nero-5"/> Tiberius died allowing him to escape these charges.<ref name="suetonius-nero-5"/> Gnaeus died of [[edema]] (or "dropsy") in 39 when Lucius was three.<ref name="suetonius-nero-5"/>

Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to Caesar [[Augustus]] and his wife [[Scribonia]] through their daughter [[Julia the Elder]] and her husband [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]. Agrippina's father, [[Germanicus]], was grandson to [[Augustus]]'s wife, [[Livia]], on one side and to [[Mark Antony]] and Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother [[Antonia Minor]], was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus' second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of [[Tiberius]]. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband, emperor Claudius.<ref name="agrippina">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 12#66|XII.66]]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html#34 LXI.34]; Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Claudius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#44 44]; Josephus is less sure, Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 8|XX.8.1]]</ref>

===Physical appearance===
In the book "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars", the Roman historian [[Suetonius]] describes Nero as "about the average height, his body marked with spots and [[Body odor | malodorous]], his hair light blond, his features regular rather than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over thick, his belly prominent, and his legs very slender."<ref>{{cite web|url = http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#51 |title = Suetonius • Life of Nero |accessdate = 2008-06-25}}</ref>

===Rise to power===
Lucius was not expected ever to become emperor. His maternal uncle, [[Caligula]], had begun his reign at the age of 24 with ample time to produce his own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband's death.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Caligula [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#29 29]</ref> Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, [[Domitia Lepida]].<ref name="suetonius-nero-6"/>

Caligula produced no male heir. He, his wife [[Caesonia]] and their infant daughter [[Julia Drusilla]] were murdered in 41.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XIX#Chapter 1|XIX.1.14]], [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XIX#Chapter 2|XIX.2.4]]</ref> These events led [[Claudius]], Caligula's uncle, to become emperor.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XIX#Chapter 3|XIX.3.2]]</ref> Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.<ref name="suetonius-nero-6"/>

[[Image:NeroandClaudius.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Coin issued under Claudius celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, ''c.'' 50]]

Claudius had married twice before marrying [[Messalina]].<ref name="suetonius-claudius-26">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Claudius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#26 26]</ref> His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young age.<ref name="suetonius-claudius-27">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Claudius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#27 27]</ref> He had two children with Messalina - [[Claudia Octavia]] (b. 40) and [[Britannicus]] (b. 41).<ref name="suetonius-claudius-27"/> Messalina was executed by Claudius in 48.<ref name="suetonius-claudius-26"/>
In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to Agrippina.<ref name="suetonius-claudius-27"/> To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and renamed ''Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus'' (see [[adoption in Rome]]).<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 12#25|XII.25]]</ref> Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the throne.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 12#26|XII.26]]</ref>

Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14.<ref name="annals-xii-41">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 12#41|XII.41]]</ref> He was appointed [[proconsul]], entered and first addressed the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage.<ref name="annals-xii-41"/> In 53, he married his stepsister [[Claudia Octavia]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 12#58|XII.58]]</ref>

==Emperor==
===Early rule===
[[Image:Nero Agrippina aureus 54.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Aureus]] of Nero and his mother, Agrippina, ''c.'' 54.]]
[[Claudius]] died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts vary greatly, many ancient historians claim [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina]] poisoned Claudius.<ref name="agrippina"/> It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved with the death of Claudius.<ref>Cassius Dio's and Suetonius' accounts claim Nero knew of the murder, Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html#35 LXI.35], Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#33 33]; Tacitus' and Josephus' accounts only mention Agrippina, Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 12#65|XII.65]], Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 8|XX.8.1]]</ref>

Nero became emperor at 16, the youngest emperor up until that time.<ref>Augustus was 35, Tiberius was 56, Caligula was 25 and Cladius was 50</ref> Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina]], his tutor [[Seneca the younger|Lucius Annaeus Seneca]], and the Praetorian Prefect [[Sextus Afranius Burrus]], especially in the first year.<ref>Cassius Dio claims "At first Agrippina managed for him all the business of the empire", then Seneca and Burrus "took the rule entirely into their own hands,", but "after the death of Britannicus, Seneca and Burrus no longer gave any careful attention to the public business" in 55, Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html#3 LXI.3-7]</ref> Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as [[Alexander of Aegae]].<ref name="DGRBM">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Jowett | first = Benjamin | authorlink = Benjamin Jowett | title = Alexander of Aegae | editor = [[William Smith (lexicographer)|William Smith]] | encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]] | volume = 1 | pages = 110-111 | publisher = [[Little, Brown and Company]] | location = Boston | year = 1867 | url = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0119.html }}</ref>

Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus. [[Image:Neroandseneca.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Seneca and Nero, by Eduardo Barron, Cordoba, Spain.]] In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene.<ref name="annals-xiii-5">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#5|XIII.5]]</ref> Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his mother.<ref name="annals-xiii-13">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#13|XIII.13]]</ref> Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to [[Claudia Octavia|Octavia]] and entered an affair with [[Claudia Acte]], a former slave.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#12|XIII.12]]</ref> In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.<ref name = "annals-xiii-14"/>

With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly began pushing for Britannicus, Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor.<ref name="annals-xiii-14">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#14|XIII.14]]</ref> Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's adoption, was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood.<ref name="wikisource1">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#14|XIII.14]]</ref> According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over Nero.<ref name="wikisource1"/> However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on [[February 12]], [[55]], the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#16|XIII.16]]</ref> Nero claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#16|XIII.16]]; Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 8|XX.8.2]]; Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#33 33]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html#7 LXI.7]</ref> After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#18|XIII.18-21]]</ref>

===Matricide and consolidation of power===
[[Image:Nero and Poppaea Sabina.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina]]

Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed [[Pallas (freedman)|Marcus Antonius Pallas]], an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury.<ref name="annals-xiii-14"/> Pallas, along with [[Burrus]], was accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix|Faustus Sulla]] to the throne.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#23|XIII.23]]</ref> [[Seneca the younger|Seneca]] was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxi-10">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html#10 LXI.10]</ref> Seneca was able to get himself, Pallas and Burrus acquitted.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxi-10"/> According to [[Cassius Dio]], at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of Nero.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html#7 LXI.7]</ref>

In 58, Nero became romantically involved with [[Poppaea Sabina]], the wife of his friend and future emperor [[Otho]].<ref name="annals-xiii-46">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#46|XIII.46]]</ref> Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#1|XIV.1]]</ref> A number of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry Poppaea until 62.<ref>Dawson, Alexis, "Whatever Happened to Lady Agrippina?", ''The Classical Journal'', 1969, p. 254</ref> Additionally, according to [[Suetonius]], Poppaea did not divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it unlikely that the already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Otho 3</ref> Some modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted by her plotting to set [[Rubellius Plautus]] on the throne.<ref>Rogers, Robert, [http://www.jstor.org/view/00659711/ap010058/01a00140/0 ''Heirs and Rivals to Nero''], Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 86. (1955), p. 202. Silana accuses Agrippina of plotting to bring up Plautus in 55, Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#19|XIII.19]]; Silana is recalled from exile after Agrippina's power waned, Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#12|XIV.12]]; Plautus is exiled in 60, Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#22|XIV.22]]</ref> According to [[Suetonius]], Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, but when she survived, he had her executed and framed it as a suicide.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#34 34]</ref> The incident is also recorded by Tacitus <ref> Tacitus, "The Annals" </ref>

[[Image:Remorse of Nero.jpg|thumb|left|280px|''The Remorse of Nero after Killing his Mother'', by [[John William Waterhouse]], 1878.]]

In 62 Nero's adviser, [[Burrus]], died.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#51|XIV.51]]</ref> Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#52|XIV.52]]</ref> Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#53|XIV.53]]</ref> Nero divorced and banished [[Claudia Octavia|Octavia]] on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea.<ref name="annals-xiv-60">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#60|XIV.60]]</ref> After public protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile,<ref name="annals-xiv-60"/> but she was executed shortly upon her return.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#64|XIV.64]]</ref>

Accusations of treason against Nero and the Senate first appeared in 62.<ref> Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#48|XIV.48]]</ref> The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#49|XIV.49]]</ref> Tacitus writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by [[Gaius Calpurnius Piso]] began in this year. To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals [[Pallas (freedman)|Pallas]], [[Rubellius Plautus]] and [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix|Faustus Sulla]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#65|XIV.65]]</ref> According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#37 37]</ref>

Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under Republican rule.<ref name = "Tacitus-Annals">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#4|XIII.4]]</ref> By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the [[Pisonian conspiracy]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#51|XV.51]]</ref>

===Administrative policies===
[[Image:Nero charity.jpg|thumb|left|320px|Coin showing Nero distributing charity to a citizen. ''c.'' 64-66]]
Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#53 53]; Gibbon, Edward, ''The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' Vol. I, Chap. VI</ref>

Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy.<ref name = "Tacitus-Annals"/> In this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments, for which he was praised by the Senate.<ref name="annals-xii-25">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#25|XIII.25]]</ref> Nero was known for being hands-off and spending his time visiting brothels and taverns during this period.<ref name="annals-xii-25"/>

In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was [[roman consul|consul]] four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule.<ref>[[Aurelius Victor]] mentions [[Trajan]]'s praise of Nero's first five or so years. [http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm Aurelius Victor ''The Style of Life and the Manners of the Imperitors'' 5]; The unknown author of ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' also mentions Trajan's praise of the first five or so years of Nero [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/LAT0210/_P2.HTM Auctor incertus ''Epitome De Caesarbius'' 5]</ref>

Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines.<ref name="annals-xiii-28">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#28|XIII.28]]</ref> Also, fees for lawyers were limited.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#17 17]</ref> There was a discussion in the Senate on the misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of revoking freedom.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#26|XIII.26]]</ref> Nero supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#27|XIII.27]]</ref> The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a household. Nero vetoed the measure.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#45|XIV.45]]</ref> After tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor, Nero transferred collection authority to lower commissioners.<ref name="annals-xiii-28"/> Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#31|XIII.31]]</ref> Additionally, there were many impeachments and removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and corruption.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#30|XIII.30]], [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#18|XIV.18]], [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#40|XIV.40]], [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#46|XIV.46]]</ref> When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly taxed, Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes.<ref name="annals-xiii-50">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#50|XIII.50]]</ref> The Senate convinced him this action would bankrupt the public treasury.<ref name="annals-xiii-50"/> As a compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 2.5%.<ref name="annals-xiii-51">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#51|XIII.51]]</ref> Additionally, secret government tax records were ordered to become public.<ref name="annals-xiii-51"/> To lower the cost of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.<ref name="annals-xiii-51"/>
[[Image:Remains of Nero's Isthmus Canal in 1881.jpg|thumb|250px|Nero's abandoned Corinth canal]]
Nero built a number of gymnasiums and theaters and had performers dress in Greek clothing.<ref name="annals-xiv-20">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#20|XIV.20]]</ref> Enormous gladiatorial shows were held.<ref name="suetonius-nero-12">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#12 12]</ref> Nero also established the [[quinquennial Neronia]].<ref name="suetonius-nero-12"/><ref name="annals-xiv-20"/> The festival included games, poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theater was for the lower-class and led to immorality and laziness.<ref name="annals-xiv-20"/> Others looked down upon Greek influence.<ref name="annals-xiv-21">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#21|XIV.21]]</ref> Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment.<ref name="annals-xiv-21"/>

In 64, [[Great Fire of Rome|Rome burned]].<ref name="annals-xv-38">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#38|XV.38]]</ref> Nero enacted a public relief effort<ref name="annals-xv-38"/> as well as significant reconstruction.<ref name="annals-xv-43">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#43|XV.43]]</ref> A number of other major construction projects occurred in Nero's late reign. Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with rubble from the fire. He erected the large [[Domus Aurea]].<ref name = "Tacitus-Annals-15">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#42|XV.42]]</ref> In 67 , Nero attempted to have a canal dug at the [[Isthmus of Corinth]].<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 10|III.10.10]],Werner, Walter: "The largest ship trackway in ancient times: the Diolkos of the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece, and early attempts to build a canal", The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, Vol. 26, No. 2 (1997), pp. 98–119</ref> Ancient historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State's budget.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 16#3|XVI.3]]</ref>

The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among scholars. According to ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined."<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#31 31]</ref><ref> Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45 XV.45]]</ref> Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles.<ref>Thornton, Mary Elizabeth Kelly "Nero's New Deal," ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', Vol. 102, (1971), p. 629</ref>

===Great Fire of Rome===
{{main|Great Fire of Rome}}
The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of [[July 18]] to [[July 19]], [[64]]. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops selling flammable goods.<ref name="tacitus-annals-xv.38">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#38|XV.38]]</ref>

[[Image:Nero-graffiti.jpg|160px|thumb|right|Ancient [[graffiti]] portrait of Nero found at the ''Domus Tiberiana''.]]
The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to [[Tacitus]], who was nine at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for five days.<ref name="annals-xv-40">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#40|XV.40]]; Suetonius says the fire raged for six days and seven nights, Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero 38; A pillar set by Domitius states the fire burned for nine days</ref> It completely destroyed four of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven.<ref name="annals-xv-40"/> The only other historian who lived through the period and mentioned the fire is [[Pliny the Elder]] who wrote about it in passing.<ref>Pliny the Elder, ''Natural Histories'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/17*.html#1 XVII.1.5], Pliny mentions trees that lasted "down to the Emperor Nero’s conflagration"</ref> Other historians who lived through the period (including [[Josephus]], [[Dio Chrysostom]], [[Plutarch]], and [[Epictetus]]) make no mention of it.

It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire—whether accident or [[arson]].<ref name="tacitus-annals-xv.38"/> [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]] favor Nero as the [[arson]]ist.<ref>Suetonius, Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#38 38]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html#16 LXII.16]</ref> Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime, but it is not known whether these were confessions induced by torture.<ref name="annals-xv-44">Tacitus ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|XV.44]]</ref> However, accidentally started fires were common in ancient Rome.<ref>Juvenal writes that Rome suffered from perpetual fires and falling houses Juvenal, ''Satires'' [http://www.vroma.org/~araia/satire3.html 3.7, 3.195, 3.214]</ref> In fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2|I.2]]</ref> and in 80.<ref>Suetonius, ''Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Titus [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Titus*.html#8 8]</ref>

It was said by [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]] that Nero sang the "[[Sack of Ilium]]" in stage costume while the city burned.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero, [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#38 38]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html#16 LXII.16]</ref> Popular legend claims that Nero played the [[fiddle]] at the time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the concept of the [[lyre]], a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his performances. (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome.) However, Tacitus' account has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire.<ref name="annals-xv-39">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#39|XV.39]]</ref> Tacitus also said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only rumor.<ref name="annals-xv-39"/>

According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero rushed back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds.<ref name="annals-xv-39"/> After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors.<ref name="annals-xv-39"/> In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#43|XV.43]]</ref> Nero also built a new palace complex known as the [[Domus Aurea]] in an area cleared by the fire. This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the [[Colossus of Nero]].<ref name = "Tacitus-Annals-15"/> The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres).<ref>Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning, First, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 227-8. ISBN 0-06-430158-3</ref><ref>Ball, Larry F. (2003). The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521822513</ref><ref>Warden reduces its size to under {{convert|100|acre|km2}}. Warden, P.G., "The Domus Aurea Reconsidered," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 40 (1981) 271-278</ref> To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#45|XV.45]]</ref>

According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors held Nero responsible.<ref name="annals-xv-44"/> To diffuse blame, Nero targeted a sect called the [[Christians]].<ref name="annals-xv-44"/> He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and burned.<ref name="annals-xv-44"/>

[[Tacitus]] described the event:

{{cquote|Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired.<ref name="annals-xv-44"/>}}

===Public performances===
[[Image:As-Nero-Ara pacis-RIC 0562.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Nero coin, ''c.'' 66. [[Ara Pacis]] on the reverse.]]

Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the harp and poetry.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#14|XIV.14]], [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#16|XIV.16]]</ref> He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the empire.<ref>Philostratus II, ''Life of Apollonius'' [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_4_36.html#§39 4.39]; Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vitellius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vitellius*.html#11 11]</ref> At first, Nero only performed for a private audience.<ref name="tacitus-annals-xv.33">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#22|XV.33]]</ref>

In 64, Nero began singing in public in [[Naples|Neapolis]] in order to improve his popularity.<ref name="tacitus-annals-xv.33"/> He also sang at the second [[quinquennial Neronia]] in 65.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'' Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#21 21]</ref> It was said that Nero craved the attention,<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#33 33]</ref> but historians also write that Nero was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle and the people.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 16#4|XVI.4]]; Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vitellius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vitelius*.html#11 11]; Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#10 10], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#21 21]</ref> Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform, calling it shameful.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#15|XIV.15]]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html#19 LXI.19]</ref>

Nero was convinced to participate in the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance.<ref>Philostratus II, ''Life of Apollonius'' [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_5_06.html#§7 5.7]</ref> As a competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it.<ref name="suetonius-nero-24">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#24 24]</ref> He also performed as an actor and a singer.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#25 25]</ref> Though Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out entirely before the end) and acting competitions,<ref name="suetonius-nero-24"/> he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded them when he returned to Rome.<ref name="suetonius-nero-24"/> The victories are attributed to Nero bribing the judges and his status as emperor.<ref>Suetonius ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#23 23], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#24 24]</ref>

===War and peace with Parthia===
{{details|Roman-Parthian War of 58–63}}
Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman [[vassal]] [[kingdom of Armenia]] overthrew their prince [[Rhadamistus]] and he was replaced with the [[Parthia]]n prince [[Tiridates I of Armenia|Tiridates]].<ref name="annals-xiii-7">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#7|XIII.7]]</ref> This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory.<ref name="annals-xiii-7"/> There was concern in Rome over how the young emperor would handle the situation.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#8|XIII.8]]</ref> Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command of [[Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#9|XIII.9]]</ref> The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#10|XIII.10]]</ref>

The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king [[Vologases I of Parthia|Vologases I]] refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#42|XIII.42]]</ref> The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom.<ref name="annals-xiii-46"/> Commander [[Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo|Corbulo]] responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that same year.<ref name="annals-xiii-55">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#55|XIII.55]]</ref> Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia.<ref name="annals-xiii-55"/>

Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#56|XIII.56]]</ref> [[Tigranes VI of Armenia|Tigranes]], a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia.<ref name="annals-xiv-36">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#36|XIV.36]]</ref> Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.<ref name="annals-xiv-36"/>

[[Image:LocationParthia.PNG|thumb|250px|The Parthian Empire ''c.'' 60. Nero's peace deal with Parthia was a political victory at home and made him beloved in the east.]]

In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of [[Adiabene]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#1|XV.1]]</ref> Again, Rome and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria.<ref name="annals-xv-4">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#4|XV.4]]</ref> Corbulo tried to convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal instead.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#16|XV.16]]</ref> There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#18|XV.18]]</ref>

The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#29|XV.29]]</ref> In the future, the [[List of Armenian Kings#Arsacid Dynasty|king of Armenia]] was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#2 LXIII.2]</ref> <ref name = "annals-xv-38"/>

This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxii-23">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html#23 LXII.23]</ref> Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as well.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxii-23"/> The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor [[Trajan]] of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.

===Other major power struggles and rebellions===
[[Image:Nero pushkin.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Plaster bust of Nero, [[Pushkin Museum]], [[Moscow]].]]
The war with Parthia was not Nero's only major war but he was both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle.<ref>Suetonius ''Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#18 18]; Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ''Pharsalia'' (Civil War) (''c.'' 65)[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/pcwar10.txt]</ref> Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the empire.

;British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica's Uprising)
In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of [[Britannia]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#29|XIV.29]]</ref> While the governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paullinus]] and his troops were busy capturing the island of Mona (Anglesey) from the druids, the tribes of the south-east staged a revolt led by queen [[Boudica]] of the [[Iceni]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#31|XIV.31]]</ref> Boudica and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus was able to return, be reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#31|XIV.31-38]]</ref> Fearing Paullinus himself would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced him with the more passive [[Publius Petronius Turpilianus]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#39|XIV.39]]</ref>

;The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65
{{main|Pisonian conspiracy}}
In 65, [[Gaius Calpurnius Piso]], a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#49|XV.49]]</ref> According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the [[Roman Republic|Republic]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#50|XV.50]]</ref> The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported it to Nero's secretary, [[Epaphroditos]].<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#55|XV.55]]</ref> As a result, the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including [[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus|Lucan]], the poet.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#70|XV.70]]</ref> Nero's previous advisor, [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#60|XV.60-62]]</ref>

;The First Jewish War of 66–70
In 66, there was a [[First Jewish-Roman War|Jewish revolt]] in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension.<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book II#Chapter 13|II.13.7]]</ref> In 67, Nero dispatched [[Vespasian]] to restore order.<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book III#Chapter 1|III.1.3]]</ref> This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book IV#Chapter 10|VI.10.1]]</ref> This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second [[Temple of Jerusalem]].<ref>Josephus, ''War of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The War of the Jews/Book VII#Chapter 1|VII.1.1]]</ref>

===The Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the Death of Nero===
[[Image:Nero Palatino Inv618.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine.]]
In March 68, [[Vindex|Gaius Julius Vindex]], the governor of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]], rebelled against Nero's tax policies.<ref name = "Cassius-22">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#22 LXIII.22]</ref><ref>Donahue.</ref> [[Lucius Virginius Rufus|Lucius Verginius Rufus]], the governor of [[Germania Superior]], was ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxiii-24">Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html#24 LXIII.24]</ref> In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex called upon [[Galba|Servius Sulpicius Galba]], the governor of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]], join the rebellion and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.<ref name="Plutarch-galba-5">Plutarch, ''The Parallel Lives'', Life of Galba [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html#5 5]</ref> At the [[Battle of Vesontio]] in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide.<ref name="cassiusdio-lxiii-24"/> However after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to proclaim their own commander as emperor. Verginius refused to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain did not bode well for Nero.

While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of the [[Praetorian Guard]], [[Nymphidius Sabinus|Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus]], also abandoned his allegiance to the emperor and came out in support for Galba.

In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of [[Ostia]] and from there to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces. However he abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands, responding with a line from [[Vergil]]'s [[Aeneid]]: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to [[Parthia]], throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum. <ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#47 47]</ref>

Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping, he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, none replied. Upon going to their chambers personally, all were abandoned. Upon calling for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appeared. He cried "Have I neither friend not foe?" and ran out as if to throw himself into the [[Tiber]].<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#47 47]</ref>

Returning again, Nero sought for some place where he could hide and collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman offered his villa, located 4 miles outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal servants reached the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. As it was being prepared, he said again and again "What an artist the world is losing!". At this time a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to death. At this news Nero prepared himself for [[forced suicide|suicide]]. Losing his nerve, he first begged for one of his companions to set an example by first killing themself. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the end. After quoting a line from [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] ("Hark, now strikes on my ear the trampling of swift-footed coursers!") Nero drove a dagger into his throat. In this he was aided by his private secretary, [[Epaphroditos]]. When one of the horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he attempted to staunch the bleeding. With the words "Too late! This is fidelity!", Nero died on 9th June 68.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#49 49]</ref>

With his death, the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] came to an end. Chaos ensued in the [[Year of the Four Emperors]].<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2"/>

===After death===
{{see also|Nero Redivivus Legend}} ''and [[Pseudo-Nero]]''
According to [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]], the people of Rome celebrated the death of Nero.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html 63]</ref><ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#57 57]</ref> [[Tacitus]], though, describes a more complicated political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper-class.<ref name="histories-i-4">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#4|I.4]]</ref> The lower-class, slaves, frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the news.<ref name="histories-i-4"/> Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.5">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#5|I.5]]</ref>

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and [[Apollonius of Tyana]], mention that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"<ref>Philostratus II, ''The Life of Apollonius'' [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_5_41.html#§41 5.41]</ref> and that he "held our liberties in his hand and respected them."<ref>Letter from Apollonius to Emperor Vespasian, Philostratus II, ''The Life of Apollonius'' [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_5_41.html#§41 5.41]</ref>

Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia."<ref>M. T. Griffin, Nero (1984), p. 186; Gibbon, Edward, ''The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' Vol. I, Chap. III</ref>

Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as "outburst of private zeal".<ref>Champlin (2003), p. 29.</ref> Many portraits of Nero were reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty such images survive.<ref name=pollini>John Pollini, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0422/is_3_88/ai_n16788663 Review of ''Mutilation and Transformation: Damnatio Memoriae and Roman Imperial Portraiture'' by Eric R. Varner], ''The Art Bulletin'' (September 2006).</ref> This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously (see [[damnatio memoriae]]).<ref name=pollini/> Champlin, however, doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of Nero long after his death.<ref>Champlin (2003), pp. 29&ndash;31.</ref>

[[Image:Nero-nancy.jpg|190px|thumb|left|Apotheosis of Nero, ''c.'' after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divine status after his death.]]

The civil war during the [[Year of the Four Emperors]] was described by ancient historians as a troubling period.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2"/> According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.<ref name="histories-i-4"/> [[Galba]] began his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#6|I.6]]</ref> One notable enemy included [[Nymphidius Sabinus]], who claimed to be the son of emperor [[Caligula]].<ref>Plutarch, ''The Parallel Lives'', The Life of Galba [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html#9 9]</ref>

[[Otho]] overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of Nero's and resembled him somewhat in temprement.<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#13|I.13]]</ref> It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.<ref name="suetonius-otho-7">Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Otho [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Otho*.html#7 7]</ref> Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.<ref name="suetonius-otho-7"/> [[Vitellius]] overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Vitellius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Vitellius*.html#11 11]</ref>

After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#57 57]; Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8|II.8]]; Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19 LXVI.19]</ref> This belief came to be known as the [[Nero Redivivus Legend]].

At least [[pseudo-Neros|three Nero imposters]] emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.<ref name="tacitus-histories-II.8">Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2#8|II.8]]</ref> After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.<ref name="tacitus-histories-II.8"/> Sometime during the reign of [[Titus]] (79-81) there was another impostor who appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/66*.html#19 LXVI.19]</ref> Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of [[Domitian]], there was a third pretender. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caears'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#57 57].</ref> and the matter almost came to war.<ref name="tacitus-histories-I.2"/>

The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death. [[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422<ref name="augustine">Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'' [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf102.iv.XX.19.html XX.19.3]</ref>

==Historiography==
The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising of Nero.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#1|I.1]]; Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 8|XX.8.3]]; Tacitus, ''Life of Gnaeus Julius Agricola'' [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Agricola#10 10]; Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#20|XIII.20]]</ref> The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events.<ref> Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#20|XIII.20]]; Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 14#2|XIV.2]]</ref> Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.<ref> Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#20|XIII.20]]; Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XIX#Chapter 1|XIX.1.13]]</ref> A few of the contemporary historians are known by name. [[Fabius Rusticus]], [[Cluvius Rufus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]] all wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 13#20|XIII.20]]</ref> There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero was praised.<ref> Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#1|I.1]]; Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 8|XX.8.3]]</ref>

The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]], who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of [[Claudius]], the death of [[Agrippina the Younger|Agrippina]] and the Roman fire of 64, but they are consistent in their condemnation of Nero.

A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources, though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people, especially in the east.

;Cassius Dio
[[Cassius Dio]] (''c.'' 155- 229) was the son of [[Cassius Apronianus]], a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under [[Commodus]] and governor of Smyrna after the death of [[Septimius Severus]]; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.

Books 61–63 of Dio's ''Roman History'' describe the reign of Nero. Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by [[John Xiphilinus]], an 11th century monk.

;Dio Chrysostom
[[Dio Chrysostom]] (''c.'' 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:

{{cquote|Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive.<ref>Dio Chrysostom, ''Discourse'' XXI, On Beauty</ref>}}

;Epictetus
[[Epictetus]] (''c.'' 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe [[Epaphroditos]]. He makes a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry and unhappy man.

;Josephus
[[Image:josephus.jpg|thumb|The historian Josephus (''c.'' 37-100) accused other historians of slandering Nero.]]
The historian [[Josephus]] (''c.'' 37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

{{cquote|But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favor, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them.<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' [[wikisource:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 8|XX.8.3]]</ref>}}

;Lucan
Though more of a poet than historian, [[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus|Lucanus]] (''c.'' 39- 65) has one of the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.<ref>Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext96/pcwar10.txt ''Pharsalia'' (Civil War) (''c.'' 65)]</ref>

;Philostratus
[[Philostratus]] II "the Athenian" (''c.'' 172- 250) spoke of Nero in the [[Life of Apollonius Tyana]] (Books 4–5). Though he has a generally a bad or dim view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.

;Pliny the Elder
The history of Nero by [[Pliny the Elder]] (''c.'' 24- 79) did not survive. Still, there are several references to Nero in Pliny's ''Natural Histories''. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind."<ref>Pliny the Elder, ''Natural Histories'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/7*.html#viii VII.8.46]</ref>

;Plutarch
[[Plutarch]] (''c.'' 46- 127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of Galba and the Life of Otho. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that replace him are not described as better.

;Seneca the Younger
It is not surprising that [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (''c.'' 4 BC- 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very well of Nero.<ref>Seneca the Younger, [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/10001/10001-h/10001-h.htm ''Apocolocyntosis'' 4]</ref>

;Suetonius
{{Main|Lives of the Twelve Caesars}}
[[Suetonius]] (''c.'' 69- 130) was a member of the equestrian order and head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects.

Portions of his biography of Nero appear sensational and modern scholarship questions the full accuracy of his writings. For example:

{{cquote|He castrated the boy Sporus and actually tried to make a woman of him; and he married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil, took him to his home attended by a great throng, and treated him as his wife. And the witty jest that someone made is still current, that it would have been well for the world if Nero's father Domitius had that kind of wife. This Sporus, decked out with the finery of the empresses and riding in a litter, he took with him to the courts and marts of Greece, and later at Rome through the Street of the Images, fondly kissing him from time to time.<ref>Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#28 28]</ref>}}

;Tacitus
{{Main|Annals (Tacitus)}}
The ''Annals'' by [[Tacitus]] (''c.'' 56- 117) is the most detailed and comprehesive history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66. He is unkind to Nero, but unlike other historians, he minimizes the use of sensational stories. Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:

{{cquote|The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#1|I.1]]</ref>}}

Tacitus was the son of a [[Promagistrate|procurator]], who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.<ref>Tacitus, ''History'' [[wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#1|I.1]]</ref>

==Nero and religion==
===Jewish tradition===
At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to a Jewish tradition in the [[Talmud]] ([[tractate]] [[Gittin|Gitin]] 56a-b), Nero went to Jerusalem and told his men to shoot arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day. The child responded "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel" ([[Ezekiel|Ez.]] [http://av1611.com/kjbp/kjv-bible-text/Eze-25.html 25,14]). Nero became terrified, believing that God wanted the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] to be destroyed, but would punish him if it was. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution. [[Vespasian]] was then dispatched to put down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage [[Reb Meir Baal HaNess]], a prominent supporter of the [[Simon bar Kokhba|Bar Kokhba]] [[Bar Kokhba's revolt|rebellion]] against Roman rule, was a descendant of Nero. Roman sources nowhere report Nero's alleged conversion to Judaism, a religion considered by the Romans as extremely barbaric and immoral. <ref>Isaac, Benjamin (2004) The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity pp. 440-491. Princeton. </ref> It seems unlikely that such sources - almost universally hostile towards the emperor - would not have passed up the opportunity to denigrate Nero even further by mentioning this alleged conversion. Neither is there any record of Nero having any offspring who survived infancy: his only recorded child, [[Claudia Augusta]], died aged 4 months. The historical evidence of the Talmud thus appears faulty with respect to Nero.

===Christian tradition===
[[Image:Dirce.jpg|thumb|400px|''A Christian Dirce'', by [[Henryk Siemiradzki]]. A Christian woman is martyred in this re-enactment of the myth of [[Dirce]].]]

Early [[Christian]] tradition often holds Nero as the first persecutor of Christians and as the killer of [[Apostles]] [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]. There was also a belief among some early Christians that Nero was an [[Antichrist]].

;First Persecutor
The non-Christian historian [[Tacitus]] describes Nero extensively torturing and executing Christians after the fire of 64.<ref name="annals-xv-44"/> [[Suetonius]] also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it with the fire.<ref>Suetonius ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#16 Life of Nero, chapter 16]</ref>

The Christian writer [[Tertullian]] (''c.'' 155- 230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote "Examine your records. There you will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine".<ref>Tertullian ''Apologeticum'', lost text quoted in [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm Eusebius, ''Ecclesiastical History'' II.25.4]</ref> [[Lactantius]] (''c.'' 240- 320) also said Nero "first persecuted the servants of God".<ref name="lactantius">[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-07/anf07-15.htm Lactantius, ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died'' II]</ref> as does [[Sulpicius Severus]].<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sulpiciusseveruschron2.html Sulpicius Severus, ''Chronica'' II.28]</ref> However, Suetonius gives that "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [the emperor [[Claudius]]] expelled them from Rome" ("''Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit''").<ref>Suetonius ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', Life of Claudius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#25 25]</ref> These expelled "Jews" may have been early Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit, calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at the time, "Jews."<ref>[[BibleWiki:Acts Chapter 18, Verse 2|Acts of the Apostles 18:2]]</ref>


;Killer of Peter and Paul
The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal ''[[Ascension of Isaiah]]'', a Christian writing from the 2nd century. It says ''the slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands.''<ref name="ascension">[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ascension.html ''Ascension of Isaiah'' Chapter 4.2]</ref>

The [[Bishop]] [[Eusebius]] of [[Caesarea]] (''c.'' 275- 339) was the first to write that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero.<ref>Eusebius, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm ''Ecclesiastical History'' II.25.5]</ref> He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and traveling to [[Hispania]].<ref>In the [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspaul.html apocryphal Acts of Paul], in the [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspeter.html apocryphal Acts of Peter], in the [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/1clement-lightfoot.html First Epistle of Clement 5:6], and in [http://www.bible-researcher.com/muratorian.html The Muratorian Fragment]</ref>

Peter is first said to have been crucified upside down in Rome during Nero's reign (but not by Nero) in the [[apocryphal]] [[Acts of Peter]] (''c.'' 200).<ref> [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/actspeter.html Apocryphal ''Acts of Peter'']</ref> The account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute any more Christians.

By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.<ref> [[Lactantius]] wrote that Nero ''crucified Peter, and slew Paul.'', Lactantius, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-07/anf07-15.htm ''Of the Manner in Which the Persecutors Died'' II]; [[John Chrysostom]] wrote Nero knew Paul personally and had him killed, John Chrysostom, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1907.htm ''Concerning Lowliness of Mind'' 4]; [[Sulpicius Severus]] says Nero killed Peter and Paul, Sulpicius Severus, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sulpiciusseveruschron2.html ''Chronica'' II.28-29]</ref>

;The Antichrist
{{Main|The Beast (Bible)|Number of the Beast}}

The ''[[Ascension of Isaiah]]'' is the first text to suggest that Nero was the [[Antichrist]]. It claims a ''lawless king, the slayer of his mother,...will come and there will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken unto him in all that he desires.''<ref name="ascension"/>

The [[Sibylline Oracles]], Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speaks of Nero returning and bringing destruction.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/sib/index.htm ''Sibylline Oracles'' 5.361-376, 8.68-72, 8.531-157]</ref> Within Christian communities, these writings, along with others,<ref>[[Sulpicius Severus]] and [[Victorinus of Pettau]] also say Nero is the Antichrist, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sulpiciusseveruschron2.html Sulpicius Severus, ''Chronica'' II.28-29]; [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0712.htm Victorinus of Pettau, ''Commentary on the Apocalypse'' 17]</ref> fueled the belief that Nero would return as the Antichrist. In 310, [[Lactantius]] wrote that Nero ''suddenly disappeared, and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen. This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that, having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to him they apply the Sibylline verses''.<ref name="lactantius"/>

In 422, [[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, ''so that in saying, "For the mystery of iniquity doth already work," he alluded to Nero, whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.''<ref name="augustine"/>;

Some scholars, such as Delbert Hillers ([[Johns Hopkins University]]) of the [[American Schools of Oriental Research]] and the editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins study Bibles, contend that the number [[Number of the Beast|666]] in the [[Book of Revelation]] is a code for Nero,<ref>Hillers, Delbert, “Rev. 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba’at”, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 170 (1963) 65.</ref> a view that is also supported in [[Roman Catholic]] Biblical commentaries.<ref>The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Ed. Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. 1009 </ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Just, S.J., Ph.D. | first =Prof. Felix | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =''The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements'', University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community | work = | publisher = | date = | url = http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Apocalyptic.htm| format =| doi = | accessdate = 2007-05-18}}</ref> When treated as Hebrew numbers, the letters of Nero's name add up either to 616 or 666, representing the two devil numbers given in ancient versions of Revelation and the two ways of spelling his name in Hebrew (NERO and NERON).

The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of [[Preterism|Preterist]] [[eschatology]].

==Nero in post-ancient culture==
===Nero in medieval and Renaissance literature===
Usually as a stock exemplar of vice or a bad ruler
* In the ''[[Golden Legend]]'', and its apocryphal account of his forcing [[Seneca the Younger]]'s suicide, where they meet face to face on this occasion.
* In [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'', ''[[The Monk's Prologue and Tale]]''.
* [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]'s ''[[Concerning the Falls of Illustrious Men]]''.
* [[Matthew Gwinn]] wrote a play ''Nero'' in 1603.<ref>{{cite web | last = Gwinn| first = Matthew | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Nero | work = | publisher = | date = | url = http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/Nero/| format =| doi = | accessdate = 2007-05-19}}</ref>

===Nero in modern culture===
{{main|Nero in popular culture}}

===Nero in music===
Nero is the main character of some musical works, as the operas:
* [[Claudio Monteverdi]]'s ''[[L'incoronazione di Poppea]]'' (1642),
* [[Anton Rubinstein]]'s ''Nero'' (1879),
* [[Arrigo Boito]]'s ''[[Nerone (Boito)|Nerone]]'' (1924),
* [[Pietro Mascagni]]'s ''[[Nerone (Mascagni)|Nerone]]'' (1935).

==Ancestry==
<center>{{ahnentafel-compact5
|style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%;
|border=1
|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1.'''Nero'''
|2= 2. [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]
|3= 3. [[Agrippina the Younger]]
|4= 4. [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC)|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]]
|5= 5. [[Antonia Major]]
|6= 6. [[Germanicus]]
|7= 7. [[Agrippina the Elder]]
|8= 8. [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]
|9= 9. [[Aemilia Lepida]]
|10= 10. [[Mark Antony]]
|11= 11. [[Octavia Minor]]
|12= 12. [[Nero Claudius Drusus]]
|13= 13. [[Antonia Minor]]
|14= 14. [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]
|15= 15. [[Julia the Elder]]
|16= 16. [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC)|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]]
|17= 17. [[Porcia (sister of Cato the Younger)|Porcia Catonis]]
|20= 20. [[Marcus Antonius Creticus]]
|21= 21. [[Julia Antonia]]
|22= 22. [[Gaius Octavius]]
|23= 23. [[Atia Balba Caesonia]]
|24= 24. [[Tiberius Nero|Tiberius Claudius Nero]]
|25= 25. [[Livia|Livia Drusilla]]
|26= 26. = 10. [[Mark Antony]]
|27= 27. = 11. [[Octavia Minor]]
|28= 28. [[Lucius Vipsanius Agrippa]]
|30= 30. [[Augustus]]
|31= 31. [[Scribonia]]
}}</center>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}


==References==
==References==
{{wikiquote}}
{{reflist}}
{{Commonscat|Nero}}
===Primary sources===
* [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Tacitus/index.htm Tacitus, ''Histories'', I-IV (''c.'' 105)]
* [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Tacitus/index.htm Tacitus, ''Annals'', XIII–XVI (''c.'' 117)]
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/josephus/works/files/works.html Josephus, ''War of the Jews'', Books II-VI (''c.'' 94)]
* [http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-20.htm Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', Book XX (''c.'' 94)]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Books 61–63 (''c.'' 229)]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html Plutarch, ''The Parallel Lives'', The Life of Galba (''c.'' 110)]
* [http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/apollonius/life/va_00.html Philostratus II, ''Life of Apollonius Tyana'', Books 4–5, (''c.'' 220)]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html Suetonius, ''The Lives of Twelve Caesars'', the Life of Nero (''c.'' 121)]

===Secondary material===
* Benario, Herbert W. [http://www.roman-emperors.org/nero.htm Nero] at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''.
* Champlin, Edward. ''Nero''. Harvard: Harvard University Press, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-674-01822-2).
* Donahue, John, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/galba.htm"Galba (68-69 A.D.)"] at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''.
* Grant, Michael. ''Nero''. New York: Dorset Press, 1989 (ISBN 0-88029-311-X).
* Griffin, Miriam T. ''Nero: The End of a Dynasty''. New Heaven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1985 (hardcover, ISBN 0-300-03285-4); London; New York: Routledge, 1987 (paperback, ISBN 0-7134-4465-7).
* Holland, Richard. ''Nero: The Man Behind the Myth''. Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000 (paperback ISBN 0-7509-2876-X).
* Warmington, Brian Herbert. ''Nero: Reality and Legend''. London: Chatto & Windus, 1969 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7011-1438-X); New York: W.W Norton & Company, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-393-00542-9); New York: Vintage, 1981 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1454-1).
* [http://www.geocities.com/gaiusulpius/nero.html Nero] Nero: The Actor-Emperor
* [http://virtualreligion.net/iho/nero.html Nero] entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith
* [http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=5&Ename=Nero Nero] basic data & select quotes posted by [http://www.romansonline.com/ ''Romans On Line'']
* [http://www.bible-history.com/nero/ Nero Caesar] biographical sketch archived in [http://www.bible-history.com/ ''Bible History Online'']
* [http://www.roman-empire.net/emperors/nero.html Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus] entry in the [http://www.roman-empire.net/ ''Illustrated History of the Roman Empire''].

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{{succession box one to two|title1=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Claudius]]|after1=[[Galba]]|years1=54 – 68|title2=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty|Julio-Claudian dynast]]|after2=''(none)''|years2=54 – 68}}
{{succession box|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]] together with [[Lucius Antistius Vetus]]|before = [[Marcus Acilius Aviola]] and [[Marcus Asinius Marcellus]]||after = [[Quintus Volusius Saturninus]] and [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio]] |years = 55}}
{{succession box|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|before = [[Quintus Volusius Saturninus]] and [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Scipio]]||after = [[Gaius Vipstanus Apronianus]] and [[Gaius Fonteius Capito]] |years = 57-58}}
{{succession box|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]] with [[Cossus Cornelius Lentulus]]|before = [[Gaius Vipstanus Apronianus]] and [[Gaius Fonteius Capito]]||after = [[Publius Petronius Turpilianus]] and [[Lucius Iunius Caesennius Paetus]] |years = 60}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Finch, Florence}}
{{Roman Emperors}}
<!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] -->


[[Category:1893 births]]
{{Persondata
[[Category:2007 deaths]]
|NAME=Nero
[[Category:British expatriates]]
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus
[[Category:Deaths from cardiovascular disease]]
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Fifth and last [[Roman Emperor]] of the Julio-Claudian dynasty; reigned 13 October 54 – 9 June 68
[[Category:New Zealand supercentenarians]]
|DATE OF BIRTH= [[December 15]], [[37]]
[[Category:People from London]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Anzio]], [[Italy]]
|DATE OF DEATH= [[June 9]], [[68]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Rome]], [[Italy]]
}}
[[Category:Nero| ]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:1st century Romans]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Ancient Olympic competitors]]
[[Category:Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae]]
[[Category:Roman emperors who committed suicide]]
[[Category:Suicides by sharp instrument]]
[[Category:37 births]]
[[Category:68 deaths]]
[[Category:Converts to Judaism]]
[[Category:Talmud people]]


{{Link FA|tr}}
{{NZ-bio-stub}}
{{Link FA|es}}


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[[pl:Florence Finch]]
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[[bs:Neron]]
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[[cs:Nero]]
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[[el:Νέρων]]
[[es:Nerón]]
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[[eu:Neron]]
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[[fy:Nero]]
[[ga:Nearó]]
[[gl:Nerón]]
[[ko:네로]]
[[hr:Neron]]
[[id:Nero]]
[[is:Neró]]
[[it:Nerone]]
[[he:נירון קיסר]]
[[ka:ნერონი]]
[[la:Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus]]
[[lt:Neronas]]
[[hu:Nero]]
[[mr:नीरो]]
[[ms:Nero]]
[[nl:Nero (keizer)]]
[[ja:ネロ]]
[[no:Nero]]
[[nn:Nero av Romarriket]]
[[pl:Neron]]
[[pt:Nero]]
[[ro:Nero]]
[[ru:Нерон]]
[[scn:Niruni]]
[[simple:Nero]]
[[sk:Nero]]
[[sl:Neron]]
[[szl:Nerůn]]
[[sr:Нерон]]
[[sh:Neron]]
[[fi:Nero]]
[[sv:Nero]]
[[ta:நீரோ]]
[[th:จักรพรรดิเนโร]]
[[vi:Nero]]
[[tr:Neron]]
[[uk:Нерон]]
[[zh:尼禄]]

Revision as of 18:33, 10 October 2008

Florence Finch (December 22, 1893 – April 10, 2007) was a British born New Zealand supercentenarian.

Finch moved to New Zealand permanently in 1969.[1]

She holds the longevity record for New Zealand. Finch was born in London and, although nearly deafblind, celebrated her 113th birthday in Hastings, New Zealand.

She died of cardio respiratory failure.[2] At the time of her death, Finch was the sixth-oldest verified living person in the world.

See also

References

  1. ^ http://www.stuff.co.nz/northland/3909562a11.html
  2. ^ NZ's oldest person dies at 113 - 11 Apr 2007 - NZ Herald: New Zealand National news
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