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Frederick III (German: Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, English: Frederick William Nicholas Charles; October 18, 1831 – June 15, 1888), (German: Friedrich III., Deutscher Kaiser und König von Preußen) was German Emperor and King of Prussia in 1888, ruling for only 99 days during the Year of Three Emperors. Born in 1831 to William I, Frederick III followed in his father's footsteps militarily and was a commander during the wars fought to unify German. Frederick III was celebrated for his military successes and leadership during the Second Schleswig War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War.^[1]^[2] After the wars, his father, now German Emperor, lived to the age of 90, postponing Frederick's reign for 27 years. When Frederick III took the throne on March 9, 1888, he had already developed larynx cancer. After unsuccessful treatment, he died on June 15, 1888.

He was married to Princess Victoria, the daughter of British Queen Victoria. Frederick, despite following his family's militaristic tradition, had liberal tendencies due to his ties with Britain and his time growing up during the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. Frederick III's reign was anticipated by liberal Germans and British alike in the hopes of liberalizing the German Empire. He opposed Bismarck often and spoke out against his policy of unifying Germany through military might. Frederick also wrote of limiting the power of Bismarck's Chancellor position, however his illness prevented him from enacting most policies about which he spoke. After his largely ineffectual reign, his successor, William II, abandoned any path toward liberalization that Frederick III previously leaned towards.

The timing of his death and the length of his reign have remained important topics among historians today. Many historians feel that Frederick would have enacted the liberal policies of which he dreamed and would have liberalized Germany earlier. Their argument is that an earlier, more liberal Germany with a more liberal leader could have potentially prevented World War I and future European wars. On the other hand, contrasting historians argue that Frederick either would not have enacted his promised policies due to his obedience to his father and Bismarck, or could not because of the German political climate being unfavorable to liberalism at the time.

Personal life

Early life

Frederick William, as he was known before he assumed the throne, was born in the New Palace at Potsdam, a scion of the House of Hohenzollern. His father, Prince William of Prussia was a younger brother of King Frederick William IV of Prussia. Prussia, at the time, was recovering militarily and otherwise from the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars.^[3] His mother, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar, had been brought up in a very different atmosphere. Weimar was the first German state to grant its subjects a constitution. Frederick's parents were also quite ill-suited to one another. His father had been in love with his cousin Elisa Radziwill, a minor Princess of the Polish nobility. He was forced to give her up due to her unequal rank and marry a dynastically suitable Princess, which he did out of duty.^[3] Princess Augusta was well known across Europe for her liberal views.^[4] It is not surprising therefore that Frederick's adult memories were always of a lonely childhood in a home dominated by his ill-matched parents.^[5] He had one sister, Louise, later Grand Duchess of Baden. Although Frederick was eight years Louise's senior, the two siblings were very close. During this time Frederick also lived through the Revolutions of 1848 which, along with his liberal family members and education, contributed to him having liberal beliefs early in life.^[6]

Education

The Hohenzollern family traditionally valued a military education. It was Frederick's mother that insisted that her son be educated according to liberal ideas.^[5] Therefore his education was closely supervised and extremely thorough. He was a talented student and was particularly good at foreign languages. He became fluent in English and French and also studied Latin as well as History, Geography, Physics, Music and Religion. Frederick was also good at gymnastics and became a very good rider as required of a Prussian Prince.^[7] Like all Hohenzollern princes he became familiar from a particularly young age with the military traditions of the dynasty. At the age of ten, in accordance with family tradition, he was commissioned second lieutenant in the First Infantry Regiment of Guards, and was invested with the Order of the Black Eagle.^[8] As a Prussian Prince, Frederick was expected to become actively involved as a military commander and strategist.^[8] Later, breaking with Hohenzollern tradition, he became the first Hohenzollern prince to pursue academic studies.^[2] He focused on history, literature, law, politics, English, and French while studying at the University of Bonn.^[2] During his studies in Bonn he developed many of his liberal tendencies.^[9] His future father-in-law, Prince Albert, had also studied there.^[10]

Marriage and family

Victoria, Princess Royal, eldest daughter of Queen Victoria, whom Frederick married in 1858

As early as 1851, there were plans to marry Frederick to Victoria, Princess Royal of Great Britain and Ireland, the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. At the christening of the future King Edward VII, Frederick's uncle, King Frederick William IV of Prussia, was godfather and had also dandled the Princess Royal on his knee. The Royal dynasty in Britain was predominantly German; there was little British blood in Queen Victoria and none in her husband.^[11] The idea of Frederick marrying the Princess Royal was considered to be a very good idea by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. Nobody welcomed the prospect of closer connections with Britain more than Princess Augusta. Prince William had been indifferent to the idea and had hoped for a marriage with a Russian Grand Duchess.^[11] King Leopold I of Belgium, uncle of both Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, had long treasured the idea of Baron Stockmar of a marriage alliance between Britain and Prussia.^[12] Prince Albert hoped that the marriage would lead to the liberalization and modernization of Prussia. The betrothal of the young couple was announced in April 1856.^[13] The wedding was on January 25, 1858, in the Chapel of St. James's Palace, London. To mark the occasion, Frederick was promoted to Major-General in the Prussian army. Although the marriage was arranged, the couple loved each other.^[14]^[15] The rigorously educated Victoria shared her husband's liberal views. The couple had eight children during their marriage: William in 1859, Charlotte in 1860, Henry in 1862, Sigismund in 1864, Victoria in 1866, Waldemar in 1868, Sophie in 1870 and Margaret in 1872.^[16] However, both Princes Sigismund and Waldemar died in childhood, Sigismund at age 2 and Waldemar at age 11.^[16] Frederick's eldest son, William, suffered from a withered arm due to his difficult and dangerous breech birth, although it could have also been the result of a slight case of cerebral palsy.^[17]^[18] Relations between both parents and William would prove to be difficult throughout the years.^[19]

Political life

Crown Prince

Template:Infobox German Monarch Styles

On January 2, 1861, Frederick William's father became King William I of Prussia, and Frederick William himself became Crown Prince at the age of twenty-nine. He had to remain Crown Prince until the long-delayed death of his father on March 9, 1888. William's accession did not usher in the new era for which Frederick and the liberal elements in Prussia had hoped. The elections of December 1861 returned a greatly increased liberal majority in the Prussian Diet. Frederick declared himself in complete agreement with the "essential liberal policy for internal and foreign affairs."^[20]

But the new King was an obstinate old soldier, not likely to change his conservative ideas at the age of sixty-four.^[21] Frederick very nearly became King in September 1862. When the Diet refused funds for his army reorganization, William threatened to abdicate.^[22] Frederick was appalled, saying that an abdication would "constitute a threat to the dynasty, country and Crown."^[22] William did not abdicate; instead he appointed Bismarck as Minister-President. The arrival of Bismarck, an authoritarian who often ignored or overruled the Diet,^[23] set Frederick on a collision course with his father on policy and led to his exclusion from affairs of state for the rest of the reign. A united Germany was not to be achieved through liberal and peaceful means but through Bismarck's policy of blood and iron, despite Frederick's insistence on campaigning for bloodless "moral conquests" to unify Germany.^[6]

Frederick was severely reproached by his father for his liberal ideas. As a result of these disagreements, Frederick frequently went to England with his family. There Queen Victoria allowed him to stand in her place as an official deputy on numerous occasions.^[24]

Military commander

Crown Prince Frederick formed a partnership with General Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal, his Chief of Staff, through whom he was able to command victorious armies in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. The timely arrival of his troops was crucial to the Prussian victory at the Battle of Königgrätz.^[2] After the battle, William presented Frederick with the Order Pour le Mérite, as a mark of personal gallantry on the field. A few days before Sadowa, Frederick had written to his wife hoping that this would be the last war he would have to fight. On the third day of the battle he wrote again to her, "Who knows whether we may not have to wage a third war in order to keep what we have now won?"^[25] As commander, Frederick also had great victories in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, where he commanded the III Army at Wissembourg, Wœrth, Sedan and during the Siege of Paris.^[2]

Heir to the German Empire

Frederick III as Crown Prince, by Heinrich von Angeli, 1874

The German states united as the German Empire in 1871, with William as Emperor and Frederick as heir to the new German monarchy. Bismarck, now German Chancellor, disliked Frederick, and distrusted his and his wife's liberalism. Frederick was often at odds with his father and Bismarck's policies and actions and sided with liberals often.^[26] Frederick opposed his father and Bismarck's attempt to expand the empire's army^[27] and also opposed Bismarck's restrictions on freedom of the press in what was called the Danzig statement.^[28] Frederick was kept out of any real position of power throughout his father's reign. It was very improbable that William, then 73, would reign until 1888. Frederick was left without responsibilities, however he did many works such as establishing schools and churches in the area of Bornstaedt near Potsdam.^[29]^[30] Emperor William, seeking to raise the capital of Berlin to a great cultural center, appointed Frederick as Protector of Public Museums. It was largely due to his work that considerable artistic collections were acquired. After his death, these collections were housed in the new Kaiser Friedrich Museum (later known as the Bode Museum) in Berlin.^[31] Frederick continued his military and representational duties when required, such as attending Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee in 1887. "For a while Fritz's life was little more than a chronicle of foundation stone laying, traveling to weddings and celebrations in all corners of the continent and family visits to his wife's relations in England or alternatively to her sister Alice at the humble palace in Darmstadt."^[32]

Illness and brief reign

By the time his father died aged 90 on March 9, 1888, Frederick was viewed with hope by liberals as someone who would finally be able to implement the liberal ideas that he espoused.^[33] However, by that time Frederick had developed a debilitating cancer of the larynx, which was finally diagnosed on November 12, 1887 by the British doctor Sir Morell Mackenzie.^[34] On learning of his illness Frederick said, "To think I should have such a horrid disgusting illness ... I had so hoped to have been of use to my country."^[35] Due to a rivalry between the local German doctors and the British doctors favored by Frederick and his wife, difficulties occurred over the proposed treatment of the patient.^[36] Doctor Bergman, a German, proposed to remove the larynx completely. His German colleague, Dr. Virchow, disagreed.^[37] Such an operation had never been successfully performed without the death of the patient.^[38] Therefore both the Emperor and Empress naturally preferred the treatment suggested by Mackenzie. A cannula was fitted on February 8 to allow the Emperor to breathe.^[39] This operation is called a tracheotomy. Frederick had difficulty speaking for the remainder of his life, and often communicated through writing. Dr. Bergman almost killed the Emperor by missing the incision in the windpipe and forcing the cannula into the wrong place. This caused the Emperor to cough and bleed, so Bergman placed his forefinger into the wound to enlarge it. The bleeding only subsided after two hours. The Emperor wrote, "Why did Bergman put his finger in my throat?"^[39] and later, "Bergman ill-treated me".^[39] Bergman's interference resulted in an abscess in the patient's neck creating pus which made the condition more serious.^[39] Years later, Bergman tried to prove to his medical students that he could have saved Frederick III by removing his larynx. He attempted that operation on a different patient, but that patient died under the knife.^[40]^[41]^[42]

In spite of his illness, Frederick continued to fulfill his obligations as Emperor. Before he ascended to the position he had already penned a proclamation that stated that the chancellor and monarch would be limited under the constitution.^[43] Immediately after the announcement of his accession, he took the ribbon and star of his own Order of the Black Eagle from his jacket and pinned it on the dress of his wife. He was determined, though gravely ill, to honor the position of his wife as Empress.^[44] He also managed to receive Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and King Oscar II of Sweden and Norway and to attend the wedding of his son Prince Henry to his niece Princess Irene. Because Frederick III ruled for only 99 days,^[45] he was unable to cause many lasting changes to Germany.^[46] He did however force Robert von Puttkammer to resign on June 8 when evidence appeared that Puttkammer had interfered in the Reichstag elections.^[47]^[48] Dr. Mackenzie wrote of the Emperor that he had "an almost overwhelming sense of the duties of his position."^[49] Writing to Lord Napier, the new Empress Victoria wrote that "The Emperor is able to attend to his business, and do a great deal, but not being able to speak is, of course, most trying."^[50] However, despite all of his efforts, Frederick did not have time to complete his ideas and may have realized that Germany's path to liberalism was in danger when in May 1888 he said "I cannot die ... What would happen to Germany?"^[51] Finally on June 15, Frederick III died and was succeeded by his 29-year-old son William II. After his death, British Prime Minister William Gladstone called Frederick III the "Barbarossa of German liberalism."^[52] He is buried in a mausoleum attached to the Friedenskirche in Potsdam.^[53]^[54]

Legacy

Template:House of Hohenzollern Many historians have considered Frederick's early death as an end to the course of liberalism within the German empire. Given a longer reign and better health, many historians and scholars believe that it is possible that he would have moved Germany towards a more liberal democratic course, possibly preventing Germany's militaristic path towards war.^[45]^[55]^[56] Certain authors such as Dr. J. McCullough claim specifically that Frederick would have prevented World War I and the resulting Weimar Republic.^[56] Other historians such as Michael Balfour extend this belief to possibly preventing World War II, as the end of World War I directly affected the state of the world's development.^[57] These beliefs that Frederick III could have steered Germany away from the path towards war are founded in his long history of liberalism and the liberal ideas that he discussed with Victoria and others before his reign. Frederick and Victoria were both great admirers of Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and the British parliamentary system.^[27] They planned to rule as consorts and liberalize Germany through the appointment of more liberal ministers.^[58] Frederick also planned for the office of Chancellor to be severely limited.^[43] Government policy would be based on the consensus of a liberal cabinet, as Frederick believed a country should not act against the popular opinion of its inhabitants.^[28] However, his father lived over 90 years and reigned for 27 years. That, combined with his sickness, made Frederick unable to enact his liberal policies at the height of his power, popularity, and good health following his military successes.

There are also historians who oppose the idea that Frederick could have, or would have, liberalized Germany. Some historians believe that he would not have changed Germany's course because of his apparent compliance with most of his father's and Bismarck's policies early in his life.^[59] Frederick was also steeped in his family's strong military tradition since he was young. Historians argue further that Frederick was too weak and ineffectual to have brought about real change in Germany regardless of how long he reigned.^[33]^[60] Finally, historians state that despite Frederick III's personal traits, the political climate and party system of Germany during his reign would not have accepted liberalization, regardless of his efforts.^[61]

Frederick's children also continued to greatly affect Europe after his death. Although many of his children held various political positions, his most well known son is William II, who became emperor after Frederick III's death. William II had not experienced the horrors of war firsthand like his father, and not only did he immediately take to his family's military traditions, he also fell under the tutelage of Bismarck. Bismarck felt that it was his job to increase the tensions between William II and his parents.^[62] Shortly after his father's death, William II proclaimed that he would follow the path of his grandfather, William I, but made no reference to his recently deceased father.^[63] William II became very militaristic and abandoned all of his father's liberal policies and ideas, eventually leading Germany into World War I.

Ancestry

**Frederick III's ancestors in three generations**
Frederick III, German Emperor	Father: William I of Germany	Paternal Grandfather: Frederick William III of Prussia	Paternal Great-grandfather: Frederick William II of Prussia
			Paternal Great-grandmother: Frederica of Hesse-Darmstadt
		Paternal Grandmother: Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz	Paternal Great-grandfather: Charles II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
			Paternal Great-grandmother: Frederica Caroline Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt
	Mother: Augusta of Saxe-Weimar	Maternal Grandfather: Charles Frederick of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach	Maternal Great-grandfather: Charles Augustus of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
			Maternal Great-grandmother: Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt
		Maternal Grandmother: Maria Pavlovna of Russia	Maternal Great-grandfather: Paul I of Russia
			Maternal Great-grandmother: Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg

Issue

Name	Birth	Death	Notes
William II	January 27, 1859	June 4, 1941	married 1881, Princess Augusta Viktoria of Schleswig-Holstein; had issue
Princess Charlotte	July 24, 1860	October 1, 1919	married 1878, Bernhard III, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen; had issue
Prince Heinrich	August 14, 1862	April 20, 1929	married 1888, Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine; had issue
Prince Sigismund	September 15, 1864	June 18, 1866	died aged 21 mos.
Princess Viktoria	April 12, 1866	November 13, 1929	married 1890, Prince Adolf of Schaumburg-Lippe
Prince Waldemar	February 10, 1868	March 27, 1879	died aged 11
Princess Sophie	June 14, 1870	January 13, 1932	married 1889, Constantine I of Greece; had issue
Princess Margaret	April 22, 1872	January 22, 1954	married 1893, Prince Frederick Charles of Hesse; had issue

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

October 18, 1831 - January 2, 1861: His Royal Highness Prince Frederick of Prussia
January 2, 1861 - January 18, 1871: His Royal Highness The Crown Prince of Prussia
January 18, 1871 - March 9, 1888: His Imperial and Royal Highness The German Crown Prince, Crown Prince of Prussia
March 9, 1888 - June 15, 1888: His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor, King of Prussia

Notes

^ Kollander, p. 79.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Pike
^ ^a ^b Van der Kiste, p. 10.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 11.
^ ^a ^b Van der Kiste, p. 12.
^ ^a ^b Nichols, p. 7.
^ Mueller-Bohn, p. 44.
^ ^a ^b Mueller-Bohn, p. 14.
^ MacDonogh, p. 17.
^ Mueller-Bohn, p. 19.
^ ^a ^b Van der Kiste, p. 15.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 16.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 31.
^ MacDonogh, p. 17-18.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 43.
^ ^a ^b Kollander, p. 21.
^ Röhl, p.12.
^ MacDonogh, p. 22.
^ Röhl, p. xiii.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 68.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 61.
^ ^a ^b Pakula, p. 168.
^ Pakula, p. 75.
^ Pakula, p. 69.
^ Pakula, p. 98.
^ Dorpalen, p. 6.
^ ^a ^b Dorpalen, p. 1.
^ ^a ^b Dorpalen, p. 11.
^ Mueller-Bohn, p. 420.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 89.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 128.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 130–31.
^ ^a ^b Sheehan, p. 217.
^ Judd, p. 13.
^ Pakula, p. 448.
^ Pakula, p. 479.
^ Sinclair, p. 195
^ Sinclair, p. 206
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Sinclair, p. 204
^ Corti, p. 307–08.
^ Pakula, p. 504.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 171.
^ ^a ^b Kollander, p. 147.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 193.
^ ^a ^b Kitchen, p. 214.
^ Cecil, p. 110.
^ Sinclair, p. 211.
^ Kollander, p. 174.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 195.
^ Van der Kiste, p. 196.
^ Pakula, p. 484.
^ Kollander, p. xi.
^ Wanckel
^ Reid
^ Chalat, p. 1307.
^ ^a ^b McCullough, p.403.
^ Balfour, p. v.
^ Farago, p. 264.
^ Dorpalen, p. 18.
^ Rosenberg, p. 34.
^ Sheehan, p. 216.
^ Feuchtwanger, p. 243.
^ Kollander, p. 178.

References

Balfour, Michael (1964). The Kaiser and his Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 807459. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Cecil, Lamar (1989). Wilhelm II: Prince and Emperor 1859-1900. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807818282.
Chalat, Ned (1984). "Sir Morell Mackenzie Revisited". The Laryngoscope. 94 (10): 1307–1310. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Corti, Egon (1957). The English Empress: A Study in the Relations Between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, Empress Frederick of Germany. London: Cassell. OCLC 60222037. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Dorpalen, Andreas (1948). "Emperor Frederick III and the German Liberal Movement". The American Historical Review. 54 (1): 1–31. {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Farago, Ladislas (1981). Royal Web: The Story of Princess Victoria and Frederick of Prussia. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Feuchtwanger, Edgar (2002). Bismarck. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415216142. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Judd, Denis (1976). Eclipse of Kings: European Monarchies in the Twentieth Century. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 9780685701195. OCLC 2074280. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Kitchen, Martin (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521453417. OCLC 46909896. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Kollander, Patricia (1995). Frederick III: Germany’s Liberal Emperor. London: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313294839. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
MacDonogh, Giles (2003). The Last Kaiser: The Life of Wilhelm II. London: Macmillan. ISBN 9780312305574. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
McCullough, J. (1930). "An Imperial Tragedy: Frederick III and the Letters of the Empress". The Canadian Medical Association Journal: 403–409. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Mueller-Bohn, Hermann (1900). Kaiser Friedrich der gütige: Vaterländisches Ehrenbuch (in German). Berlin: Verlag Von Paul Kittel. OCLC 11475860. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Nichols, J. (1987). The Year of the Three Kaisers: Bismarck and the German Succession, 1887-88. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252013072. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Pakula, Hannah (1995). An Uncommon Woman - The Empress Frederick: Daughter of Queen Victoria, Wife of the Crown Prince of Prussia, Mother of Kaiser Wilhelm. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9780684808185. OCLC 59592048. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Pike, John (2008). "Kaiser Friedrich III". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
Reid, Denis (2008). "Royal Genealogies Part I". cac.psu.edu. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
Röhl, John (1998). Young Wilhelm: The Kaiser's Early Life, 1859-1888. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521497527. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Rosenberg, Arthur (1931). The Birth of the German Republic 1871-1918. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Sheehan, James (1978). German Liberalism in the Nineteenth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9781573926065. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Sinclair, Andrew (1981). The Other Victoria: The Princess Royal and the Grand Game of Europe. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. ISBN 0 297 779887. OCLC 8845833. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
Van der Kiste, John (1981). Frederick III: German Emperor 1888. Gloucester: Alan Sutton. ISBN 9780904387773. OCLC 10605825. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
Wanckel, Regine (2008). "Evangelische Friedenskirchgemeinde Potsdam" (in German). Evkirchepotsdam.de. Retrieved 2008-09-29.

External links

Kaiser Friedrich III Template:De icon Website with biographical information, pictures, and paintings of Frederick III

German nobility
Frederick III, German Emperor House of Hohenzollern Born: October 18 1831 Died: June 15 1888
Preceded by Wilhelm I	German Emperor King of Prussia March 9 – June 15, 1888	Succeeded by Wilhelm II

Template:German Empire 1871-1918

Template:BD

[Kollander-79-1] Kollander, p. 79.

[Pike-2] Pike

[VdK-10-3] Van der Kiste, p. 10.

[VdK-11-4] Van der Kiste, p. 11.

[VdK-12-5] Van der Kiste, p. 12.

[Nichols-7-6] Nichols, p. 7.

[M-B-44-7] Mueller-Bohn, p. 44.

[M-B-14-8] Mueller-Bohn, p. 14.

[MacDonogh-17-9] MacDonogh, p. 17.

[M-B-19-10] Mueller-Bohn, p. 19.

[VdK-15-11] Van der Kiste, p. 15.

[VdK-16-12] Van der Kiste, p. 16.

[VdK-31-13] Van der Kiste, p. 31.

[MacDonogh-17-18-14] MacDonogh, p. 17-18.

[VdK-43-15] Van der Kiste, p. 43.

[Kollander-21-16] Kollander, p. 21.

[Röhl-12-17] Röhl, p.12.

[MacDonogh-22-18] MacDonogh, p. 22.

[Röhl-xiii-19] Röhl, p. xiii.

[VdK-68-20] Van der Kiste, p. 68.

[VdK-61-21] Van der Kiste, p. 61.

[Pakula-168-22] Pakula, p. 168.

[Pakula-75-23] Pakula, p. 75.

[Pakula-69-24] Pakula, p. 69.

[Pakula-98-25] Pakula, p. 98.

[Dorpalen-6-26] Dorpalen, p. 6.

[Dorpalen-1-27] Dorpalen, p. 1.

[Dorpalen-11-28] Dorpalen, p. 11.

[M-B-420-29] Mueller-Bohn, p. 420.

[VdK-89-30] Van der Kiste, p. 89.

[VdK-128-31] Van der Kiste, p. 128.

[VdK-130+-32] Van der Kiste, p. 130–31.

[Sheehan-217-33] Sheehan, p. 217.

[34] Judd, p. 13.

[Pakula-448-35] Pakula, p. 448.

[Pakula-479-36] Pakula, p. 479.

[Sinc-195-37] Sinclair, p. 195

[Sinc-206-38] Sinclair, p. 206

[Sinc-204-39] Sinclair, p. 204

[Corti-307+-40] Corti, p. 307–08.

[Pakula-504-41] Pakula, p. 504.

[VdK-171-42] Van der Kiste, p. 171.

[Kollander-147-43] Kollander, p. 147.

[VdK-193-44] Van der Kiste, p. 193.

[Kitchen-214-45] Kitchen, p. 214.

[Cecil-110-46] Cecil, p. 110.

[Sinc-211-47] Sinclair, p. 211.

[Kollander-174-48] Kollander, p. 174.

[VdK-195-49] Van der Kiste, p. 195.

[VdK-196-50] Van der Kiste, p. 196.

[Pakula-484-51] Pakula, p. 484.

[Kollander-xi-52] Kollander, p. xi.

[Wanckel-53] Wanckel

[Reid-54] Reid

[Chalat-1307-55] Chalat, p. 1307.

[McCullough-403-56] McCullough, p.403.

[Balfour-v-57] Balfour, p. v.

[FaragoSinclair-264-58] Farago, p. 264.

[Dorpalen-18-59] Dorpalen, p. 18.

[Rosenberg-34-60] Rosenberg, p. 34.

[Sheehan-216-61] Sheehan, p. 216.

[Feuchtwanger-243-62] Feuchtwanger, p. 243.

[Kollander-178-63] Kollander, p. 178.

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v t e Monarchs of Germany
East Francia during the Carolingian dynasty (843–911)	Louis the German Carloman Louis the Younger Charles the Fat Arnulf Louis the Child
East Francia (911–919) Kingdom of Germany (919–962)	Conrad I Henry I Arnulf Otto I
Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806)	Otto I Otto II Otto III Henry II Conrad II Henry III Henry IV Rudolf Hermann Conrad (III) Henry V Lothair II/III Conrad III Henry (VI) Frederick I Henry VI Philip Otto IV Frederick II Henry (VII) Conrad IV Henry (VIII) William Richard Alfonso Rudolf I Adolf Albert I Henry VII Louis IV Frederick (III) Charles IV Günther Wenceslaus Rupert Jobst Sigismund Albert II Frederick III Maximilian I Charles V Ferdinand I Maximilian II Rudolf II Matthias Ferdinand II Ferdinand III Ferdinand IV Leopold I Joseph I Charles VI Charles VII Francis I Joseph II Leopold II Francis II
Confederation of the Rhine (1806–1813)	Napoleon I
German Confederation (1815–1848)	Francis I Ferdinand I
German Empire (1848/1849)	Archduke John of Austria (Imperial Regent)
German Confederation (1850–1866)	Franz Joseph I
North German Confederation (1867–1871)	William I
German Empire (1871–1918)	William I Frederick III William II

v t e Monarchs of Prussia
Duchy of Prussia (1525–1701)	Albert Albert Frederick John Sigismund¹ George William¹ Frederick William¹ Frederick I¹
Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918)	Frederick I¹ Frederick William I¹ Frederick II¹ Frederick William II¹ Frederick William III¹ Frederick William IV William I² Frederick III² William II²
¹also Elector of Brandenburg; ²also German Emperor