August Revolution

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The establishment of a Vietnamese government independent of the French colonial power in Hanoi by the Viet Minh from August 1945 is referred to as the August Revolution in Vietnam . On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh publicly proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) in Hanoi . France's intention to repossess its colony was postponed by the threat of intervention by national Chinese troops stationed in north Vietnam. As a result, there was a short-lived interim agreement between France and the Viet Minh. After the withdrawal of the Chinese troops, the situation escalated at the end of 1946 and resulted in the Indochina War, which lasted until 1954 .

background

Colonial rule

Administrative division of the Indochina colony with the predominantly Vietnamese regions of Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina

In the middle of the 19th century, France began to exert economic and military influence in Indochina, and in 1857 the French conquered Cochinchina . Saigon was occupied by French troops in 1859. From 1882 to 1897, Central and North Vietnam and Laos were added to the French colony. The historically traditional Vietnamese monarchy was transformed into a tool of the colonial state by undermining its sovereignty.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a very small indigenous population class with modern school and university education formed, which served the colonial state in subordinate functions. These intellectuals criticized the colonial power from a nationalist or a Marxist perspective. Political parties based on the modern model were founded in secret in order to be able to oppose organized resistance to the colonial power. Marxist ideas were particularly popular among the younger generation. In 1930 the nationalist VNQDD orchestrated an attempted insurrection in Yen Bai . The Communist Party of Indochina, which was founded in the same year, participated in peasant unrest by setting up short-lived village soviets. France was able to contain the insurrection movements quickly by means of colonial troops and smash the networks of independence movements. Several thousand people were killed and around 10,000 Vietnamese were arrested as part of the repression.

For the Vietnamese majority population of farmers living in village communities with little or no land ownership, French colonial rule meant a deterioration in their own living conditions. From the 1830s to the 1930s, the population of Indochina increased sixfold due to the introduction of modern hygiene and vaccination measures, but the area of ​​cultivated land only increased by a factor of two. In 1939, the majority of the rural population in Tonkin could not get more than one meal a day outside of harvest time. In addition to this chronic malnutrition, there was the fear of recurring famine. The colonial administration exacerbated this need by taxing the peasants for the purpose of developing a colonial economy. There were repeated famines in the north of the country, especially during the global economic crisis.

Decline of colonial power in World War II

The political structure of French Indochina was decisively shaken by the defeat of France in the western campaign . The colonial administration belonging to the collaborating Vichy regime and the military stationed there were reduced to a role of powerlessness, while the colony came more and more under Japanese influence in the course of the war. Japanese armed forces had been stationed in the colony since 1940, and their navy and air force used the country's facilities to fight the Allies. In the summer of 1941, the French administration had to cede around 70,000 square kilometers of the colony to Thailand in order to end the Franco-Thai War that Thailand began after 1940 . At the end of 1944, the Japanese leadership planned Operation Meigo Sakusen (Bright Moon) to disarm the remaining French colonial troops and take power in Indochina because of an expected Allied landing in Indochina. The operation should anticipate a landing or offer guerrilla-like resistance in the hinterland. The action was postponed several times, but finally ordered by the Supreme War Council on February 28 . The decisive factor was the argument of Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu that an invasion of Indochina was still possible and that he could guarantee from the diplomatic side that Indochina was not a reason for war for the Soviet Union against Japan. On March 9, 1945, Japanese troops finally occupied the colony in a flash and placed it under direct Japanese administration, which, however, in view of the decline of Japan in the Second World War , mainly left behind anarchy. On March 11th, on a Japanese proposal , Bảo Đại declared himself emperor of a formally independent Vietnamese national state including South Vietnam, but remained without international recognition and political power, which was practically exercised locally by the Japanese military. The rural majority population, however, remained completely untouched by Bao Dai's short-lived rule. As a result of the Japanese takeover, the monarchies in Laos and Cambodia gained at least a formal independence and were cut off from the influence of colonial power. The collapse of public order made the security situation worse, especially for the few remaining European colonists. With the Japanese coup d'état, the Viet Minh again experienced an explosion of popularity, as their supporters no longer had to fear repression from the French security forces, which had been active until then.

Economically, the country was isolated by the war. Production in the country's weak industrial sector came to a standstill in 1944. In 1945 poorer rural dwellers had to resort to grass mats for clothing purposes because there was no longer any fabric available. The few remaining motor vehicles were operated with wood gasifiers or ethanol due to a lack of oil for fuel production. A poor rice harvest as well as war-related exports to Japan and the lack of transport caused a famine from autumn 1944 to May 1945 , which, according to estimates by the French colonial administration, killed around one million people.

The free French government under Charles de Gaulle had decided at the Brazzaville Conference in 1944 to maintain or regain sovereignty over all colonial possessions. The colonized societies were promised a humanized, less exploitative colonial system. With regard to Indochina, the French government reaffirmed this shortly after the Japanese came to power in March 1945 with its own government declaration. In August 1945, de Gaulle appointed Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu the governor general of Indochina with the public verlautbarten aim to restore French sovereignty in the colony. US President Harry S. Truman had already assured the French government in May 1945 that the US would recognize and support France's sovereignty over Indochina. As part of the Potsdam Conference in August 1945, the victorious powers stipulated, in the absence of France, in a subsidiary agreement that Indochina north of the 16th parallel should be occupied by Chinese national troops, while the southern part should be occupied by British troops, in order to allow US forces to occupy the to clear the main Japanese islands.

Gaining strength of the communist independence movement

As early as May 1941, the Communist Party of Indochina, led by Ho Chi Minh, decided at the 8th Plenum of the Central Committee to give national independence priority over the social and political goals of the communist revolution. As an instrument of this policy, the Viet Minh was founded as a rallying movement to achieve independence under the control of the party, which in turn established a military wing with the National Liberation Army, which began to build a military retreat in the inaccessible regions of the Viet Bac in Tonkin . This growth of the Viet Minh could not be restricted by several French military and secret service operations. The Republic of China , at war with Japan, supported the Viet Minh by training its cadres, and plans for a Chinese invasion of Indochina intensified this cooperation from late 1943 onwards. In particular, the Chinese authorities used political pressure to force the dependent, non-communist Vietnamese nationalists to cooperate with the Viet Minh. Since at least 1944, the Viet Minh had expected the takeover of power in Vietnam without a fight in the wake of a Japanese defeat in World War II. By 1945, the Viet Minh covered the whole of Vietnam with hundreds of local national rescue committees , with which tens of thousands of supporters could be mobilized. By March 1945 the guerrillas were able to expand their radius of action to Thai Nguyen , the gateway to the Red River Delta . Since the beginning of 1945, on the initiative of the Office of Strategic Services, there was a small American team with the Viet Minh guerrillas, which should support them in the event of major fighting with Japan.

Triumph of the Viet Minh and declaration of independence

Establishment of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

In the course of the Japanese surrender, the leadership of the Viet Minh around Ho Chi Minh decided to use the political vacuum and to achieve Vietnam's independence by occupying as large parts of the country as possible and proclaiming an independent state. A Viet Minh national assembly held at Ho Chi Minh headquarters in Tan Trao village appointed Ho as head of state in a transitional government in the country. In Hanoi, local Viet Minh cadres occupied key strategic positions in the city on August 19 without a fight. This was done in tacit agreement with the local representative of the Emperor Bao Dai. On August 22nd, local Viet Minh activists took control of the imperial city of Huế . On August 26th, the Viet Minh troops from the surrounding area marched into Hanoi without a fight, so that control of the city was completely transferred from the Japanese troops to the Viet Minh.

In view of the military situation, the Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated explicitly in favor of the Viet Minh on August 25, 1945. Bao Dai was integrated into the DRV as an advisor to Ho Chi Minh, member of the National Council and ambassador to Chiang Kai-shek . Bao Dai's abdication strengthened the legitimacy of the Viet Minh among the country's non-communist social classes. On September 2, 1945, Ho Chi Minh publicly proclaimed the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Hanoi . With the DRV, the Viet Minh created a seemingly non-partisan state organization. The leader of the nationalist VNQDD became the state's foreign minister. In internal documents of the officially self-dissolved Communist Party, however, the establishment of a socialist one-party state was still propagated and concrete implementation was called for.

During the Revolution, there were extensive confiscations, mostly through the initiative of local Viet Minh committees. The aim of the confiscations were larger, mostly French companies, plantations and local landowners. The government supported these efforts as a measure against profiteers from the colonial state, but tried to give preference to economic practicality over social revolution and to curb the confiscations. On the other hand, the government itself carried out the nationalization of infrastructure and industrial companies as planned with the aim of creating a socialist economic system. There were also isolated cases of ideologically motivated attacks by communist cadres on Buddhist and Christian religious institutions. These were stopped by the central government. Likewise, Buddhist and Christian clergymen were exempted from armed service and communal work by decree.

The Viet Minh security services arrested numerous collaborators with the colonial power and anti-communists. Several thousand died in custody or were executed. Including the monarchist minister Phạm Quỳnh and the Catholic politician Ngô Đình Khôi , brother of the later South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm . The Viet Minh largely stopped the repression when the Chinese troops took control of Tonkin in order to maintain the broadest possible support base for the anticipated confrontation with the colonial power.

With regard to the food situation, the DRV government carried out a campaign under the slogan fight the hunger bandit . A state distribution system, export bans, additional manioc cultivation and the ban on processing rice for purposes other than basic foodstuffs have significantly improved the food situation. Internal documents of the Viet Minh speak of around 11,000 fatalities from malnutrition in 1946 compared to around one million the previous year. In large parts of North Vietnam, however, the food situation remained precarious. The government left the existing colonial monopolies over salt, opium and alcohol in the hope of generating income. Very popular measures were the abolition of the poll tax introduced by the colonial state and the issue of Ho Chi Minh banknotes as an emergency currency, albeit a rapidly decaying emergency currency. Likewise, the DRV created a state-owned trading company called Viet Tien , which was supposed to undertake a planned economic modernization of the country and control of foreign trade. The government tried to raise funds through fundraising campaigns; the results remained limited. In April 1946, the DRV introduced a so-called defense tax similar to the poll tax due to a lack of money .

In the military field, the establishment of a regular army was promoted through the establishment of a military academy and a military medicine college in autumn 1945. All doctors and pharmacists available in the DRV have been drafted into service with the armed forces or the Ministry of the Interior. By creating an almost entirely communist-dominated general staff in September 1945, the communist party created an instrument for controlling the state's military independently of the civil defense ministry.

French takeover in the south

Japanese soldiers surrender to Allied troops in Saigon 1945

While their position in the north was practically undisputed, the picture was different in Cochinchina . In the southern part of the country, the Cao Dai and Hoa Hao religious groups had their own militias, armed by the Japanese, which together with Catholics, Trotskyists and former members of the militia or police formed a coalition that was politically independent of the Viet Minh. One of their prominent leaders was Ngo Dinh Diem . The movement showed its political power and a. through demonstrations in Saigon in response to the Viet Minh takeover in Hanoi.

On August 24, 1945, a nine-member committee from the South , into which the two religious sects were nominally integrated, formally took power in Saigon under the Viet Minh functionary Tran Van Giau . The remaining Japanese troops offered no resistance and the Viet Minh managed to bring the city under their control within hours. They initially relied on the paramilitary youth groups that defected to them under Pham Ngoc Thach and that the Japanese had formed from actually pro-French youth and sports groups during their rule. After a short time, however, the committee lost the involvement of the non-communist forces again, all the more since the communist cadre of the Viet Minh also strictly persecuted the rival communist faction of the Trotskyists , which was located in the south, by means of arrests and also assassinations.

On September 13, 1945, British and French troops under General Douglas Gracey came to Saigon by air. In view of the weakness of the French, Gracey's aim was to restore colonial order as quickly as possible in the south of the country under his control with the help of Japanese prisoners of war. The first action taken by the British command was to drive the Committee of the South from the Governor General's palace with the help of requisitioned Japanese troops immediately after landing . The committee responded by calling a general strike for September 17, 1945. Gracey responded by declaring martial law, lifting freedom of assembly and curfew. Gracey's forces armed 1,400 former French soldiers and civilians. These left a trail of devastation through the city on September 23. Because of the attacks against the civilian population, they were disarmed again. However, after countless acts of revenge from the Vietnamese side the following night, Gracey returned her weapons to the French. Several members of the Committee of the South were executed by the French and the Allies managed to take control of the city. In October 1945 the first units of the expeditionary force landed under Major General Leclerc . In a pacification campaign, they were able to quickly drive the Viet Minh underground, but not destroy their organization. The guerrillas were able to retreat into the jungle and avoided major skirmishes. The journalist Bernard B. Fall noted that the French troops ostensibly controlled the south, but the Viet Minh could operate undisturbed 100 meters away from the streets.

Agreement of March 6, 1946

On the French side, the expeditionary force under Leclerc planned to occupy the two most important cities of North Vietnam, Hanoi and Haiphong , by means of a sea and air landing operation with tens of thousands of soldiers and thus to smash the DRV. The Republic of China, which held the north of the country with around 200,000 soldiers under General Lu Han , prevented this. Lu Han explained to the French several times that his troops would not tolerate a landing by French soldiers without a prior agreement with the Viet Minh, and so Chinese troops opened fire on arriving French ships in Haiphong on March 6, 1946, with the result that the French leadership was eventually forced to the negotiating table with the Viet Minh. The Chinese military consciously followed the strategy of the Chinese leadership around Chiang Kai-shek to prevent a war in Vietnam, in order to be able to concentrate all forces on the emerging civil war against the Chinese communists .

The negotiator Jean Sainteny came to a modus vivendi agreement between the DRV and the French government on March 6, 1946, in which France granted the DRV the status of its own free state with its own government, economic policy, parliament and military DRV, however, would remain part of French Indochina and the word "independence" was deliberately avoided. The unification of the three provinces of Tonkin, Annam and Cochinchina into a single Vietnamese state should be decided by referendum. The agreement also stipulated the withdrawal of the Chinese troops still remaining in the country, while the French military should not be withdrawn from the country for five years at the latest. Despite the far-reaching concessions, the French side used the agreement primarily to bring their own troops to the previously Chinese-occupied part of the country.

In the Vietnamese population themselves, the agreement was seen in part as a relief, but in large parts as a political defeat, which delegitimized the sacrifices made to date for the struggle for independence. The Viet Minh leadership tried to convey the advantages of the agreement under the slogan Forward by compromising its own clientele and Ho publicly stated that later independence would outweigh the human sacrifices to be expected in a war of independence. Domestically, however, the DRV government used the time to enforce the Communist Party's claim to sole political representation. The VNQDD was banned after the Chinese troops withdrew.

The way to war

On the French side, High Commissioner d'Argenlieu thwarted the agreement on February 26th by establishing a pro-French Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina on March 26th, 1946. The Viet Minh guerrillas in the south, which had previously pursued a defensive strategy, then went on the offensive over. With the continuation of the guerrilla war, the French authorities justified the public renunciation of the elections agreed in the March agreement. In April 1946, the military commander-in-chief, General Jean-Étienne Valluy, in coordination with d'Argenlieu, formulated the aim of a military operation including a coup in Hanoi in a military order. In the summer of 1946, the French military tried to expand their sphere of influence in Tonkin. The French occupied Haiphong in November 1946 after shots were fired during a customs check. The city and civilian population were the target of the bombardment of Haiphong from sea and from the air and could only be fully brought under French control after five days of fighting. Several thousand Vietnamese civilians were killed in the fighting. The Soviet government did not see interference in Indochina as sensible, as it directed its political focus on the consolidation of its power in Eastern Europe; Moreover, she did not want to anger France as a potentially influenceable actor within the Western alliance. The Viet Minh received significant support from the communist bloc only after the victory of the Chinese communists in the civil war in 1949. The passivity of the Soviet Union caused anger within the Vietnamese communist leadership. However, this did not prevent the communists from continuing to uphold the propaganda motif of the ideologically related brother state in public.

The other diplomatic talks in Dalat and Fontainebleau in 1946 remained fruitless, as the new French government under Georges Bidault and the military leadership were not prepared to make any further concessions. The leadership of the Communist Party formally came to the conclusion in October at the latest by declaration of the Military Committee for All Vietnam that a war across the country was inevitable in order to achieve the goal of independence. On December 19, 1946, sabotage by Viet Minh forces resulted in a total interruption of the power supply to Hanoi. This was followed by an attack by the Viet Minh on French troops in Hanoi and other Tonkins cities. The Viet Minh could only be driven from Hanoi by the French forces after several months of fighting. As a result, they settled in their bases in the Viet Bac and from there continued the guerrilla war against France. This conflict, known as the Indochina War , ended in 1954 with the return of the Viet Minh to Hanoi.

Sources and research

The Vietnamese state archives, particularly those of the party's central committee during the revolution, are not freely accessible. The authoritative publications on the revolution come from the Viet Minh cadres involved at the time. The general secretary of the party Trường Chinh , the propaganda chief Trần Huy Liệu and the leader of the Viet Minh in the south, Trần Văn Giàu , published extensive works on the subject. Large parts of the Viet Minh newspapers of the time have been preserved and have now been translated into English. Free historical research without the censorship of the state party is not possible in Vietnam. The main part of the documents on what happened in Vietnam on the French side are in the Archives Center for the Overseas Territories in Aix-en-Provence . In 1952, Phillippe Devillers published a history of Vietnam from 1940 to 1952, focusing in particular on the interaction between France and Vietnam. Alexander Woodside argued in 1976 that the social decline of the literate population in Vietnam under French rule was the decisive political breeding ground for the revolution. In 1982, Huynh Kim Khan pointed out the influence of the organizational preparations of the Viet Minh. In several publications, David George Marr characterized the revolution as a mass movement organized in the Leninist sense, which, however, was supported by the approval and spontaneous participation of the population. Stein Tønnesson devoted his research primarily to the political decision-making processes that had led to the revolution and the Indochina War.

Postwar historians and journalists misunderstood Franklin D. Roosevelt's anti-colonial stance and personal interest in Indochina as US political intent. According to the interpretation at the time, as represented by Bernard Fall, among others, it was only his death in 1945 and the successor by Harry S. Truman that made the reoccupation by France possible with US approval. A research group led by Leslie H. Gelb showed in the context of the Pentagon Papers in 1971, however, that the decision to allow France to do so had been taken internally while Roosevelt was still alive and that a policy of indochin’s separation from the French colonial empire never existed.

literature

  • Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An Ambiguous Colonization, 1858–1954 (= From Indochina to Vietnam. Vol. 2). University of California Press, Berkeley CA et al. 2009, ISBN 978-0-520-24539-6 ; originally published as Indochine, la colonization ambiguë, 1858-1954 . Découverte, Paris 2001, ISBN 2-70713-412-0 .
  • William J. Duiker : The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam. Westview Press, Boulder CO 1981, ISBN 0-89158-794-2 .
  • Christopher E. Goscha & Benoît de Tréglodé (editors): Le Viêt Nam depuis 1945 = The birth of a Party-State / Vietnam since 1945: naissance d'un Etat-Parti , Paris, 2004.
  • Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. Paperback edition. Random House, New York NY 2013, ISBN 978-0-375-75647-4 .
  • David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946 (= From Indochina to Vietnam. Revolution and War in a global Perspective. Vol. 6). University of California Press, Berkeley CA et al. 2013, ISBN 978-0-520-27415-0 .
  • Stein Tønnesson : The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945. Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh, and De Gaulle in a World at War. International Peace Research Institute, Oslo 1991, ISBN 0-8039-8521-5 .
  • Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. How the War Began. (= From Indochina to Vietnam. Revolution and War in a Global Perspective. Vol. 3). University of California Press, Berkeley CA et al. 2010, ISBN 978-0-520-25602-6 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, p. 4, p. 15, pp. 85-86.
  2. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 305-319.
  3. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, p. 274, p. 263, p. 266, p. 269.
  4. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 337-338, p. 348.
  5. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 - Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War , Oslo, 1991, pp. 206f, p. 220f.
  6. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 - Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War , Oslo, 1991 p. 281.
  7. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 337-338, p. 348.
  8. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 192–194.
  9. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 - Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War , Oslo, 1991 p. 247.
  10. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 337-338, p. 348.
  11. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 192–194.
  12. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 337-338, pp. 353-354.
  13. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 183-184.
  14. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, p. 296.
  15. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, p. 90.
  16. ↑ a b Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 349-351.
  17. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 - Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War , Oslo, 1991 p. 118.
  18. ^ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, p. 22.
  19. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, pp. 82–86.
  20. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 351-352.
  21. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, p. 76, p. 114.
  22. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, pp. 116–117.
  23. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 462–464.
  24. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 333-340.
  25. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, p. 556 f.
  26. ↑ Christopher Goscha: Vietnam - A New History. New York, 2016, p. 207
  27. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 320-330.
  28. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 333-340.
  29. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, pp. 116–117.
  30. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, p. 346, p. 353.
  31. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 140-143.
  32. ↑ Christoper E. Goscha: Dictionary of the Indochina War ( 1945-1954 ) , Copenhagen, 2011, p. 181.
  33. ^ William J. Duiker: The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam. 2nd edition, Boulder, 1981, 1996, pp. 101f
  34. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, pp. 111–117
    Keith Weller Taylor: A History of the Vietnamese , Cambridge, 2013, pp. 537 f.
  35. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 408-409.
  36. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, pp. 111–117.
  37. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, pp. 116–117. Pp. 286-287.
  38. ^ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, p. 75.
  39. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, p. 131.
  40. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, pp. 46–55.
  41. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, p. 357 f.
  42. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, pp. 134-135.
  43. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, p. 441.
  44. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, pp. 358-360.
  45. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, pp. 74-77.
  46. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, p. 156.
  47. ^ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, p. 238.
  48. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, p. 307 - p. 310.
  49. ↑ Pierre Brocheux, Daniel Hémery: Indochina. An ambiguous colonization, 1858-1954. 2009, p. 361.
  50. ↑ Fredrik Logevall: Embers of War. The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. 2013, pp. 139–146.
  51. ^ David G. Marr: Vietnam. State, War And Revolution 1945-1946. 2013, p. 494 f.
  52. ^ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, pp. 201-202.
  53. ^ Stein Tønnesson: The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 - Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War , Oslo, 1991 pp. 6-13, p. 21.
  54. ^ Stein Tønnesson: Vietnam 1946. 2010, p. 10.
  55. ↑ Stein Tønnesson: The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945 - Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh and de Gaulle in a World at War , Oslo, 1991 pp. 13-17.
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