Reciprocity (sociology)
Reciprocity means reciprocity or reciprocity and represents a basic principle of human action (also the principle of reciprocity ).
The term is derived from Latin ( reciprocare or reciprocus ) and can have the following meanings: relating to one another, reciprocally or reciprocally, standing in reverse relation to one another.
In numerous sociological theories similar questions are also referred to as "exchange" ( exchange ) treated.
Origin of the term
The original Latin word stands for:
- flow back, flow back and forth
- are in interaction
- steer back
- move backwards
- to move back and fourth
- Returning (on the same route)
- based on reciprocity (in a business relationship or partnership)
Reciprocity in the Social Sciences
In the social sciences , it is seen as a universal social principle. People are mutually dependent on one another, reciprocity is even a condition of becoming human itself. Mutuality creates relationships and mutual trust.
Well-known studies dealing with this phenomenon often come from ethnology. One example is Malinowski's study of the kularing in the Trobriand Islands . This involves the exchange of clam necklaces and bracelets, which led to close ties between residents of distant islands. Another classic is Marcel Mauss , who wrote about the gift as a relationship-building element, but also about the possibility of using the gift to manifest social distance.
At least four forms of reciprocity can be distinguished in the social sciences:
Direct “real” reciprocity
The simplest rule is “ tit for tat ”. Barter, from which the modern market is said to have arisen, is also derived from this form of reciprocity. Marcel Mauss has described the following rules for the exchange of gifts, whereby the parties are mutually committed:
- a) There is an opening offering.
- b) The gift must be accepted (there are often norms for this).
- c) A counterpart must be given.
While the partner who made the opening gift waits for the counter-gift, there is a phase of uncertainty, which is particularly important for the relationship. During this time, the relationship is shaped by expectations on both sides.
Generalized reciprocity
A distinction is made between generalizations over a longer period of time and generalizations over a certain characteristic. While direct reciprocity focuses on compensating for a gift or an action, individual gifts are forgotten over time. Generational relationships are an example of generalization over time. Parents provide care and material support for their children. In many cases, if their parents are in need of care, children are expected to “return” the benefits they have received.
Features over which generalizations take place can be very diverse. For example, it can be a country team, skin color or gender, etc. Generalized about a characteristic means that a service is provided for someone without a return being expected from the very person who benefited it. A return may be expected at a later date from someone else who shares the characteristic of the original recipient.
Reciprocity of positions (reciprocal role relationships)
This means that certain positions in the role system also have a counterpart, without whom they would not exist. An example of this is the father with his child. Without a child, the man would not have the position of father.
Reciprocity of perspective
Reciprocity of perspective is the ability to take someone else's point of view . In terms of the sociology of knowledge, it can be viewed as a condition for mutual understanding. This idea is mainly associated with Theodor Litt (1926), George Herbert Mead (1934) and Alfred Schütz (1971).
Although reciprocity is a fundamental social fact , it is regulated and reshaped by numerous norms of relationship and gifting.
See also
literature
- Frank Adloff / Steffen Mau (eds.): On giving and taking. On the sociology of reciprocity , Frankfurt am Main: Campus-Verlag, 2005
- Howard Paul Becker : Man in Reciprocity. Introductory Lectures on Culture, Society and Personality New York: Praeger, 1956
- Lawrence C. Becker : Reciprocity , London: Routledge & Kegan, 1986; Repr. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1990
- Alvin W. Gouldner : Reciprocity and Autonomy , Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1984
- Frank Hillebrandt : Practices of Exchange. On the sociology of symbolic forms of reciprocity , Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2009
- Theodor Litt : Individual and Community. Foundation of the culture philosophy Berlin: Teubner (2nd greatly expanded edition 1926, first 1919)
- Niklas Luhmann : The Society of Frankfurt Society : Suhrkamp, 1998 (in particular p. 649 ff.)
- Bronisław Malinowski : Argonauts of the Western Pacific. A report on the activities and adventures of the natives in the island worlds of Melanesian New Guinea : Frankfurt: Syndikat, 1984 (first: 1922, Argonauts of the Western Pacific . New York: Reynolds).
- Marcel Mauss : The gift. Form and function of exchange in archaic societies Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1990 (orig. 1950, Essay sur le don Paris, 1950)
- George Herbert Mead : Spirit, Identity and Society Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1973 (first: 1934, Mind, Self and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist).
- Karl Polanyi , Economy and Society , Frankfurt / Main: Suhrkamp, 1979.
- Alfred Schütz : The problem of social reality (1971) in: Collected essays I. The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff
- Christian Stegbauer : Reciprocity. Introduction to social forms of reciprocity Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2002
Web links
- [1] Ulrich Otto: The importance of reciprocity. Notes on exchange calculi in interpersonal help
Individual evidence
- ↑ reciprocity . In: Duden .
- ↑ HS Becker, 1956: "Man becomes human in reciprocity"
- ^ Stegbauer, Christian reciprocity. Introduction to social forms of reciprocity Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher, 2002