Gaius Musonius Rufus

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Gaius Musonius Rufus (* before 30 AD in Volsinii in Etruria , probably today's Bolsena ; † before 101/102 AD) was a Roman philosopher . He is one of the representatives of the late Stoa .

Musonius came from Etruria. Under Emperor Nero he achieved great fame as a teacher of stoic wisdom. After the Pisonian conspiracy , Nero banished him from Rome. He went into exile again in the 1970s. Finally he returned to Rome under Emperor Titus and taught with great enthusiasm until his death. Since Musonius apparently did not write any works, his philosophy is only fragmentarily preserved in authors who were based on later published lecture notes of his students.

Musonius' teaching primarily deals with ethical questions and puts the practical implementation of philosophical considerations in the foreground. At the center of his ethics is the view that all human beings have a tendency to lead a virtuous life. Through lifelong philosophical training, which includes the theoretical foundations and especially their practical implementation, one can achieve virtue and thus live according to virtuous human nature. Training includes asceticism and strict rules that cover every area of ​​human life. The task of philosophy is to guide people in their pursuit of the good . It is the only science that can free the soul from negative external influences.

His thinking had an impact beyond his direct circle of students into late antiquity and also influenced Christian authors. The ancient sources mostly reflect respect for his person and teaching. They contain numerous legends that began to entwine themselves with Musonius early on. In modern research, the judgment of its significance in the history of philosophy fluctuates greatly.

Life

Little is known about the life of Musonius. He was of knightly origin. Probably before the year 30 AD he was born as the son of a certain Capito in Volsinii in Etruria. He lived in Rome, where he achieved great fame as a teacher of stoic wisdom at the time of Emperor Nero . Apparently he accompanied the senator Rubellius Plautus , a relative of Nero, in his voluntary exile in the province of Asia in the year 60 after the emperor had asked Rubellius to withdraw from Rome. When Nero ordered the death of Rubellius two years later, Musonius advised the senator, as Tacitus reports, not to offer any resistance and to wait calmly for death. Since the fame of Musonius and his association with stoically minded senators made him suspicious, Nero banished him to the vegetation and arid island of Gyaros after the Pisonian conspiracy in 65/66 . It is uncertain whether Musonius was actually involved in the conspiracy against Nero. Numerous young men came to the island, which was feared as a place of exile, to hear his lectures. Musonius is said to have made a contribution to Gyaros by discovering a spring there. Only after the death of Nero, possibly under Galba , did Musonius return to Rome.

In the four-emperor year 69, Musonius belonged to an embassy that Emperor Vitellius sent to the victorious army of Vespasian's general Antonius Primus , who marched on Rome after the capture and destruction of Cremona . Musonius 'speech to the troops about the blessings of peace and the dangers of war is said to have only aroused the soldiers' ridicule and anger. When after the death of Vitellius some senators tried to prosecute earlier delators in their ranks, Musonius brought a lawsuit against Publius Egnatius Celer . Under Nero in 66, Celer had denounced Quintus Marcius Barea Soranus , whose friend, teacher and client he had been, and his daughter Servilia before the Senate and gave false testimony for a reward. After the guilty verdict, the stoic and former proconsul of Asia Province was forced to commit suicide. The Cynic Demetrios defended the accused Celer . Tacitus reports that Demetrios acted for dubious motives. Celer was found guilty and exiled in 70.

Musonius was expressly excluded from the expulsion of Stoic and Cynical philosophers under Emperor Vespasian in 71. He later went into exile again, perhaps voluntarily, after his relationship with Vespasian had deteriorated. During this time of exile, he met Pliny the Younger , who was then a military tribune in Syria . In 79 Musonius returned to Rome after the accession of the new emperor Titus , with whom he is said to have had a personal relationship. Nothing is known about his further life and death. A letter from Pliny dated 101/102 shows that Musonius was no longer alive at that time.

plant

Papyrus fragment P.Harr. I 1 with a section of a diatribe by Musonius, 3rd century AD, Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham

Musonius most likely did not write any scriptures, but he exerted great influence through his teaching in Greek. Although writings (mainly letters) were ascribed to him in ancient times, the letters that have survived under his name are all spurious. These include an alleged correspondence between Musonius and the legendary philosopher Apollonios of Tyana and a long letter to a certain Pankratides about education. The lecture notes of some students, which were published after his death, offer scant information about Musonius' teaching; they are based on the representation of Socrates in Xenophon . A total of 21 excerpts from doctrinal conversations ( slide disks ) and 32 smaller fragments have been preserved.

Originally there were two collections of lecture notes. One is a compilation of diatribs published by an otherwise unknown student of Musonius named Lucius. Only 21 excerpts that Johannes Stobaios , an author of the 5th century, have survived. Apparently he heard lectures by Musonius while he was exiled to Gyaros and published his notes after his death, probably between 106 and 110. All longer fragments come from this collection. Linguistically, in terms of content and in the image that they convey of Musonius, the Lucius fragments differ significantly from the fragments handed down by other authors. At the beginning of the 20th century a papyrus from the 3rd century was discovered and edited , which must have belonged to a complete collection of the texts handed down under Musonius' name. The papyrus closes a gap in a diatribe that Stobaius has preserved only in fragments. It also provides information on how Stobaios excerpted his templates .

Independently of this, a certain Pollio wrote memories of the philosopher Musonius ( Άπομνημονεύματα Μουσωνίου τοῦ φιλοσόφου Apomnēmoneúmata Mousōníou toû philosóphou ), a collection of anecdotes and sayings of Musonius. This compilation is lost. It is uncertain whether it was used by later authors and at least some of the smaller fragments come from it. This Pollio is certainly not identical with the Augustan historian Gaius Asinius Pollio , to whom the Suda , a Middle Byzantine lexicon, ascribes this collection. The identity of the author remains unclear; usually he is equated with Valerius Pollio, an Alexandrian grammarian and contemporary of Emperor Hadrian , or Annius Pollio, the son-in-law of Barea Soranus.

This collection may have taken 14 aphorisms , sayings and maxims from Stobaios, which do not come from the collection of Lucius, as well as five Musonius quotes in a diatribe of his pupil Epictetus on friendship (which has not been handed down in the original) . In the transcripts that Arrian wrote of the lectures of Epictetus, six other fragments are preserved. In addition, Plutarch reports two anecdotes about Musonius and Aelius Aristides another. Four excerpts are from Aulus Gellius .

Teaching

Musonius' philosophy, as it is handed down in the surviving extracts and fragments, fits into the tradition of the Stoic school. In questions of lifestyle and asceticism, Musonius is open to cynicism . His interest is almost exclusively in ethics ; The aim of his teaching activities is to offer practical guidance in this area. He hardly deals with theoretical areas of philosophy such as logic , physics or metaphysics .

Image of God and doctrine of virtues

The fragments provide only scant references to Musonius' image of God. He seems to have understood the divine, of which he speaks in both the plural and singular, more personally than the older Stoics. These had preferred an impersonal way of expression by placing the divine providence and reason that dominates the cosmos in the foreground. According to Musonius, the divine is benevolent, benevolent, and omniscient; nothing remains hidden from him. In the deity the virtues of discernment , justice , bravery and temperance are perfectly combined; she is free from desire, lust and envy. People owe obedience to God as their Father. You have to obey his law, which requires moral perfection through a philosophical life.

The human being is the only being an image of the deity ( μίμημα θεοῦ mímēma theoû ). Hence he can attain the perfect virtue ( ἀρετή aretḗ ) by which the divine is distinguished; the virtues are inherent in his being. The goal of his existence is to live in harmony with his own nature and thus virtuously ( κατὰ φύσιν ζῆν katà phýsin zēn ). Just as an animal can not only satisfy its desires, but has to live according to its predefined nature and fulfill special tasks and purposes for which it is intended, man must also fulfill his purpose by perfecting his being and attaining virtue . These include, for Musonius the four cardinal virtues prudence ( φρόνησις PHRONESIS ) to distinguish as the ability to distinguish between good and evil, justice ( δικαιοσύνη dikaiosyne ), courage ( ἀνδρεία Andreia ) as enduring adversity and prudent moderation ( σωφροσύνη sophrosyne ). Again and again Musonius emphasizes human love ( φιλανθρωπία philanthrōpía ) as a virtue. If a person attains these virtues, he becomes godlike, worthy of imitation and happy. This happiness ( εὐδαιμονία eudaimonía ) is the goal of all efforts to be good.

The disposition ( ὑποβολή hypobolḗ ) or the germ of virtue are inherent in all people. Musonius sees proof of this in the fact that laws apply indiscriminately to all people; if virtue could only be learned in life and not inherent in the essence of man, the laws would have to be differentiated accordingly. Another argument is that all people claim to be good even though they have neither learned nor practiced virtue and are ashamed of the opposite; thus the striving for virtue is anchored in their essence.

Philosophical training and asceticism

Since negative external influences are superimposed on the virtuous core of man, he needs instruction and practice in order to realize his disposition to virtue. Philosophy serves this purpose. For Musonius it consists in striving for the good. Only it provides the knowledge with which one can free the soul from negative influences and lead it to virtue. Lifelong philosophical training should begin in childhood. It is also suitable for women and for all social classes, and even an ideal ruler has to undergo it in order to learn to correctly distinguish between good and bad, useful and harmful. Philosophical education consists of theoretical instructions and their practical implementation and practice. Musonius emphatically emphasizes - like Epictetus - the primacy of applied ethics over theoretical considerations, which in themselves remain fruitless.

The constant self-education and exercise, asceticism ( ἀσκήσις askḗsis ) in the original sense of this term, should discipline body and soul equally. Musonius recommends getting used to cold and heat, hunger and thirst, simple food and a hard bed, to abstain from pleasure and to endure heavy exertion. For the philosopher, agriculture is the ideal activity. Contrary to the otherwise rather anti-vegetarian attitude of the Stoics, Musonius recommends plant-based food; In his opinion, meat is consumed by predators, not humans. The soul should also practice separating false goods and true goods, apparent evils and true evils. The common valuation that hardship, death and poverty are bad, but wealth, life and lust are good, spoils the soul. In truth, these things are adiaphora (indifferent). Apparent evils such as death should be feared just as little as fictitious goods should be sought. Rather, the soul must strive for virtue as its only true good with all its might and in spite of great effort ( πόνος pónos ).

This teaching is not elaborated on in the longer excerpts from Stobaios. In the only fragment that deals with cosmology and comes from a diatribe of Epictetus on friendship, Musonius emphasizes that man must submit to the cosmic process of change and change and accept what is necessary. Elsewhere he explains that God made some things subject to human influence ( τὰ ἐφ 'ἡμῖν tà eph' hēmîn ) and withdrew others ( τὰ οὐκ ἐφ 'ἡμῖν tà ouk eph' hēmîn ). In order to separate these areas and to give no meaning to what is in itself meaningless, the human being has to practice the right “use of impressions” ( χρῆσις τῶν φαντασιῶν chrēsis tōn phantasiōn ). So he has to entrust himself to the cosmos and willingly give it what he demands, for example if a child or home is lost. By having the right attitude towards external things, man can attain happiness, prudent moderation and virtue. In terms of content and language, this fragment resembles the formulation of a central idea of ​​Epictetus. However, it is unclear whether Epictetus quoted a statement by his teacher or whether he put the idea into words on his own.

Human coexistence

The moral obligations also concern human coexistence, on which everyone depends. In the polis , virtue is expressed as human love, kindness, justice, benevolent behavior and concern for the welfare of the other. Every citizen is obliged to do so. Marriage and family form the basis for this. According to Musonius, man and woman have the same reason, the same senses and the same moral disposition. Since their pursuit of virtue is identical, women and men are equally capable of philosophical life. All work must be done by both sexes. The spouse should not be chosen for beauty, wealth, or parentage, but for their mental and physical health. Musonius sees marriage as a perfect community in which nothing remains in the possession of one spouse, but everything is viewed as common property and the partners try to outdo each other in mutual care. The purpose of marriage is to have offspring; Sexual contact is only permitted within marriage and for the purpose of procreation. Musonius regards child abandonment and abortion as violations of state and divine law. Sexual relationships between a master and his slaves are also prohibited. Musonius stands up for the rights of slaves.

reception

Antiquity

Students and friends

Although his teaching did not have as intense an impact as the Epictets or Emperor Mark Aurel , Musonius was famous and highly valued as a philosopher and person in antiquity. In addition to Pollio and Lucius, who are otherwise unknown, his students included Athenodotos, the teacher Frontos , the stoic philosopher Euphrates of Tire, Timocrates of Herakleia and Gaius Minucius Fundanus. His most famous pupil was Epictetus, who heard Musonius' lectures in Rome and included some quotations in his teaching lectures that Arrian had written down. Epictetus is an important source for Musonius' oral teaching, even if his own teaching seems to differ in some areas from that of his teacher. The stoic philosopher Artemidorus, whom Musonius selected from among suitors of all walks of life as his son-in-law and who later became a close friend of Pliny the Younger, was among his immediate surroundings . Outside of his circle of students, the thoughts and concepts of Musonius exerted a great influence on the Stoic Hierocles .

Judgment on teaching and person

According to a list in Fronto, the speaker Dion Chrysostom was one of Musonius' students. However, this has been doubted in research, because Dion was at least temporarily an opponent of the philosophers; he wrote a polemical work against the philosophers , in which he demanded their banishment, as well as a work specially directed against Musonius personally. In Dion there is an anecdote about an unnamed, positively portrayed philosopher, which is often related to Musonius. In the last years of his life in Athens, this philosopher is said to have violently criticized the gladiatorial games in the Dionysus Theater and thus aroused popular anger, which forced him to leave the city. According to Dion, this philosopher enjoyed unparalleled fame and was the only one for days long past who lived anywhere close to his teaching.

Most ancient sources show respect for Musonius; so Pliny the Younger confesses his admiration for him. Tacitus sees Musonius' brilliant fame as the reason for his exile under Nero. According to Fronto, Musonius and his students were valued not only for their eloquence, but above all for their wisdom. In Plutarch 's De cohibenda ira , Fundanus, a student of Musonius, discusses with a certain Sulla one of his teacher's theses about the relationship between body and mind. The late antique rhetor Himerios also sees the ideal of the philosopher embodied in Musonius. Themistius mentions him, along with Plato and Apollonios of Tyana, among the philosophers persecuted by tyrants. Emperor Julian places him next to Socrates and attributes his fame to the fact that he endured his sufferings and the cruelty of tyrants with courage and firmness; possibly Musonius was no less happy than powerful rulers.

Legends

Numerous legendary stories grew up around Musonius early on. Most of them have come down to us from Philostratus and were coined by him. He reports that Nero had the unsurpassed philosopher Musonius arrested. In prison, Musonius secretly exchanged letters with the philosopher Apollonios of Tyana, which his companion Damis brokered. Philostratus handed down four short spurious letters in which Apollonios offered his help and Musonius turned down this offer. Elsewhere Philostratus tells that Musonius was sentenced to forced labor and used to puncture the isthmus of Corinth . By chance the cynic Demetrios, who had defended Egnatius Celer against Musonius and lost the trial, met him there. When Demetrios regretted him, Musonius asked him how he would feel if he didn't just dig, but sing to the lyre like Nero, whose appearances as a musician and actor were considered scandalous.

The core of this story found its way into the dialogue Nero , which was ascribed to Lucian and probably also comes from Philostratus. As the protagonist, Musonius explains why Nero gave up piercing the isthmus. Egyptian surveyors found that the sea levels in the Saronic and Corinthian Gulfs were different and that flooding was therefore to be feared. The fictional Musonius also suspects that the activities of the Vindex prevented Nero from continuing the project. The dialogue ends with the message of Nero's death.

Another position at Philostratos was judged differently in research, where a certain Musonius of Babylon ( ὁ Βαβυλώνιος ho Babylōnios ) is mentioned, who was imprisoned by Nero because of his wisdom and only survived thanks to his robust constitution. Some researchers consider this indication of origin to be corrupt and suggest replacing the place name with the conjecture "der Volsinier" ( ὁ Βουλσίνιος ho Voulsínios ). Others assume that it is a literary fiction and that the figure of the Babylonian Musonius emerged from the numerous legends about the historical Musonius, without any connection with his life.

In the Sophist Lives , Philostratos also reports of a certain Lucius, who was friends with Herodes Atticus and who gave him consolation when his wife Regilla died. For this purpose he had quoted his teacher named Musonius of Tire ( ὁ Τύριος ho Týrios "the Tyrian"). In research it was assumed that instead of “the Tyrian” “from Etruria” ( ὁ Τυρρηνός ho Tyrrēnós ) should be read. However, there are chronological problems, as this Lucius, as a contemporary of Emperor Mark Aurel , must have lived in the second half of the 2nd century. Hence it was assumed that there were two philosophers named Lucius, one of whom was a disciple of Musonius, the other was a friend of Herodes Atticus and was identified with a Peripatetic ; Philostratus confused the two. Other scholars consider Musonius of Tire to be a fiction of Philostratus.

Christian authors

The early Christian apologist Justin pays tribute to Musonius. He counts him among those who are hated and persecuted for leading a reasonable and sincere life and avoiding vice. In his polemic Contra Celsum , the church writer mentions Origenes Musonius by name. He cites him alongside Heracles , Odysseus and Socrates as an example of an initially sinful person who, according to tradition, has undergone a tremendous change of heart and then was a "model of the best change"; from this it can be seen that even serious sinners can return to virtue.

Clemens of Alexandria , who also adopts thoughts and formulations from Epictetus, takes up Musonios' teaching that the gods endowed man and woman with the same understanding and sensory faculties and that their disposition to virtue is equal. He interprets it in a Christian way by emphasizing in the Paidagogos that both sexes have a share in the church, modesty and shame, perception and recognition, hope and love and thus in the grace of God and a virtuous lifestyle. Elsewhere, Clemens explains that men and women are equally suitable for philosophizing and are equally guided by the Logos and that virtue is common to both sexes. Clemens borrows almost literally when dealing with the right measure in nutrition; the food should only secure life and not serve pleasure. Even when discussing the furnishing of apartments and luxury, he shows a striking closeness to Musonius.

Ambrose of Milan allows a sentence by Musonius to flow into his Christian doctrine of duty without naming its author. Ambrose advises his clerics to reconsider every act and then act when the project is found to be good. Should there be an opportunity to die gloriously, one must seize it immediately.

Modern research

In 1822 the Dutch philologist Jacobus Venhuizen Peerlkamp published the first edition of the Fragments of Musonius, followed in 1905 by a critical edition by Otto Hense .

At the beginning of the 20th century, the classical philologist Erwin Rohde suspected that Musonius was listed in the Kitāb al-Fihrist catalog , which the scholar Ibn an-Nadīm wrote in Baghdad in 988 and which should contain all works written in Arabic. A treatise on the education of a certain Murujanus (or Muzujanus, Muzubanus, Muzunajus) could conceal a diatribe of Musonius, for example under the title On Education (Perì paideías) . However, an edition of the catalog published in 1872 sees this person as a Greek monk named Morianus or Murianus, and the latest edition identifies Murujanus with the Greek author Myronianus of Amastris.

The philosophical and historical literary assessment of Musonius fluctuated greatly. On the one hand, his wisdom was praised in research in the 19th century, the style of the fragments preserved was compared with that of the xenophons and - as in ancient times - his character size was emphasized. The free religious pastor Eduard Baltzer saw it as the special achievement of Musonius to have combined philosophical theory and practical implementation, and therefore placed him above Plato and Aristotle . Rudolf Hirzel considered Musonius to be a "Roman Socrates" because of his questioning method and his teaching, in which he did not consider social differences. On the other hand, it was argued that Musonius had hardly emerged from the tradition of the Stoa and criticized his lack of originality. So said Eduard Zeller that while Musonius' language powerful, but his morale is trivial. To this judgment, Edward Vernon Arnold countered the great influence of the personality of Musonius in antiquity and called him a third founder of the Stoic philosophy. In more recent research, the relatively pale picture of Musonius that emerges from the fragments has been traced back to Lucius' late written fixation.

Editions and translations

  • Isabella Andorlini and Renato Laurenti (eds.): Corpus dei papiri filosofici Greci e Latini (CPF) , Part 1: Autori noti , Vol. 1 **, Olschki, Florenz 1992, ISBN 88-222-3918-0 , p. 480 –492 (edition of the papyrus fragments).
  • Epiktet, Teles, Musonius: Selected writings , ed. and over. by Rainer Nickel , Artemis & Winkler, Munich / Zurich 1994, ISBN 3-7608-1679-7 (selection of fonts, with original Greek text).
  • Epiktet, Teles and Musonius: Paths to a happy life (= Stoa and Stoics , Vol. 3), ed. and introduced by Wilhelm Capelle , Artemis, Zurich 1948.
  • Cora Elisabeth Lutz (Ed.): Musonius Rufus, “the Roman Socrates” . In: Yale Classical Studies , Vol. 10, New Haven 1947, pp. 1–147 (with English translation and introduction; online ).
  • Musonius Rufus: C. Musonii Rufi Reliquiae , ed. by Otto Hense , Teubner, Leipzig 1990 (reprint of the original edition from 1905), ISBN 3-322-00747-2 (critical edition; online ).
  • Musonius Rufus: Entretiens et fragments. Introduction, traduction et commentaire (= studies and materials on the history of philosophy , small series, vol. 5), trans. and ed. by Amand Jagu, Olms, Hildesheim / New York 1979, ISBN 3-487-06628-9 (with French translation).

literature

Overview representations

Investigations

  • James T. Dillon: Musonius Rufus and Education in the Good Life. A Model of Teaching and Living Virtue . University Press of America, Dallas 2004, ISBN 0-7618-2902-4 .
  • Anton C. van Geytenbeek: Musonius Rufus and Greek diatribe . Van Gorcum, Assen 1963.
  • Pieter Willem Van Der Horst: Musonius Rufus and the New Testament. A Contribution to the Corpus Hellenisticum . In: Novum Testamentum No. 16 (1974), pp. 306-315.
  • Renato Laurenti: Musonio, maestro di Epitteto . In: Rise and Fall of the Roman World . II 36.3, de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1989, ISBN 3-11-010393-1 , pp. 2105-2146.

Web links

Remarks

  1. ↑ His origin from Volsinii is only explicitly documented in the Suda , but it is confirmed by a private dedicatory inscription in which a citizen of this city describes himself as his descendant; Article Musonius ( Μ 1305 ), in: Suidae Lexicon , ed. Ada Adler , Vol. 3, Leipzig 1933 (reprinted Leipzig 1994), p. 416.5; CIL 6,537 .
  2. ↑ Tacitus, Annals 14:59.
  3. ↑ The Suda reports the erroneous claim that Nero condemned Musonius to death, but also mentions the exile under Nero; Article Musonius (Μ 1305), in: Suidae Lexicon , ed. Ada Adler, Vol. 3, Leipzig 1933 (reprinted Leipzig 1994), p. 416; Geytenbeek (1963), p. 4.
  4. ↑ Niall W. Slater, Neronian Oral Politics: The Case of Musonius Rufus , cites references to statements by Musonius that could be understood as an indirect criticism of Nero . In: Politics of Orality (= Orality and Literacy in Ancient Greece , Vol. 6), Leiden, Boston 2007, pp. 307-318.
  5. ↑ Tacitus, Historien 3.81; see Eckart Olshausen , The Stoic C. Musonius Rufus - a Pacifist? Considerations for Tac. Hist. 3.81.1 . In: Stephanie Böhm , Klaus-Valtin von Eickstedt (Ed.), ΙΘΑΚΗ. Festschrift for Jörg Schäfer on his 75th birthday on April 25, 2001 , Würzburg, pp. 249–255.
  6. ↑ Tacitus, Historien 4,40,3; Lutz (1947), p. 16 and Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 558 with further literature.
  7. ↑ The assumption that Celer was executed (according to Hans von Arnim , Article Egnatius , No. 16, in: Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswwissenschaft , Vol. V, 2, Stuttgart 1905, Col. 1996, and Lutz (1947), p. 16) is not applicable. On the circumstances of the trial, see John K. Evans, The Trial of P. Egnatius Celer . In: The Classical Quarterly 29, 1979, pp. 198-202.
  8. ^ Cassius Dio , Roman History 65:13.
  9. ↑ John L. Penwill, Politics and Philosophy in Flavian Rome , gives evidence of Musonius' criticism of Vespasian, which strained his relationship with the emperor . In: Anthony J. Boyle, William J. Dominik (Eds.): Flavian Rome. Culture, Image, Text , Leiden 2003, pp. 354-357.
  10. ↑ Hieronymus , Die Chronik des Hieronymus , ed. Rudolf Helm , Berlin 1956, p. 189 (on the year 79); Themistios , speech 13, 173bc.
  11. ↑ a b c Pliny, Epistulae 3,11.
  12. ↑ On the inauthentic writings see Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 564, Geytenbeek (1963), p. 7f. and Lutz (1947), p. 5 with older literature.
  13. ↑ Goulet-Cazé (2005), pp. 567-570.
  14. ↑ Andorlini, Laurenti (1992), No. 72, pp. 480-490; Lutz (1947), p. 6, note 12 and Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 570 with older literature.
  15. ↑ Geytenbeek (1963), p. 9; Lutz (1947), p. 11, note 31.
  16. ↑ The Suda article also merges Asinius Pollio with a sophist from the time of Pompey ; Article Polion ( Π 2165 ), in: Suidae Lexicon , ed. Ada Adler, Vol. 4, Leipzig 1935 (Reprint Leipzig 2001), pp. 185.8.
  17. ↑ Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 571; Geytenbeek (1963), p. 8; Lutz (1947), p. 10f.
  18. ↑ Margarethe Billerbeck (ed.), Vom Kynismus , Leiden 1978, p. 3.
  19. ↑ In fragment 42 Musonius briefly touches on the stoic cosmology.
  20. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 1; 17th
  21. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 16.
  22. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 17; Geytenbeek (1963), pp. 22-28.
  23. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 2; Geytenbeek (1963), pp. 28-33.
  24. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 6.
  25. ↑ Geytenbeek (1963), pp. 33-35 with references.
  26. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 8; see Slater (2007), pp. 309-314.
  27. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 5; 6th
  28. ↑ On the ascetic exercise of soul and body see Laurenti (1989), pp. 2113-2120.
  29. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 6; 19; 20th
  30. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 11.
  31. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 18A-B; on vegetarianism in Musonius see Johannes Haussleiter, Der Vegetarismus in der Antike , Berlin 1935, pp. 263–269.
  32. ↑ The stoic term Adiaphora ( ἀδιάφορα adiáphora ) does not appear in the fragments that have been preserved, but its content is present accordingly; Geytenbeek (1963), p. 49.
  33. ↑ On the concept of effort and its tradition, see Geytenbeek (1963), pp. 46–49.
  34. ↑ Musonius, fragment 42.
  35. ↑ Musonius, fragment 38.
  36. ↑ Epictetus, handbook 1.
  37. ↑ Geytenbeek (1963), p. 49f.
  38. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 14.
  39. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 3; 4; on the relationship between women and men in Musonius see Martha C. Nussbaum , The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman , in: Samebe, Juha Sihvola (ed.), The Sleep of Reason. Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome , Chicago 2002, pp. 283-326. Nussbaum regards Musonius' “ feminism ” as a rather superficial compromise between the Stoic conception of gender equality and historical patriarchal structures. See also the bibliography in Goulet-Cazé (2005), pp. 566f.
  40. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 13.
  41. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 15.
  42. ↑ Musonius, Diatriben 12.
  43. ↑ a b A list of students can be found in Fronto, Ad Marcum Antoninum Imperatorem de eloquentia liber 1,1,4.
  44. ↑ On the relationship between Musonius' and Epiktet's philosophy see Jackson Hershbell, The Stoicism of Epictetus , in: Aufstieg und Niedergang der Roman Welt , II 36.3, Berlin 1989, pp. 2155f.
  45. ↑ On Musonius' students see Goulet-Cazé (2005), pp. 560f .; Geytenbeek (1963), p. 14; Lutz (1947), pp. 18-20.
  46. ↑ See Harry Sidebottom: The Date of Dio of Prusa's Rhodian and Alexandrian Orations . In: Historia 41, 1992, pp. 407-419, here: pp. 413f.
  47. ↑ Dion Chrysostom, Orationes 31,122; on the relevant research discussion see Geytenbeek (1963), p. 14f., Lutz (1947), p. 17.
  48. ↑ Tacitus, Annals 15.71.
  49. ^ Fronto, Epistula ad Verum 1,1.
  50. ↑ Plutarch, De cohibenda ira 453D (= Musonius, fragment 36).
  51. ↑ Himerios, Orationes 23:21.
  52. ↑ Themistios, Orationes 6,72d.
  53. ↑ Julian, Briefe , ed. Bertold K. Weis, Munich 1973, p. 91 (letter 31); Giuliano imperatore: Epistola a Temistio , ed. Carlo Prato / Alfonsina Fornaro, Lecce 1984, p. 28 (265D).
  54. ↑ Philostratus, Vita Apollonii 4.46.
  55. ^ Philostratus, Vita Apollonii 5,19.
  56. ^ Tim Whitmarsh, Greek and Roman in Dialogue: The Pseudo-Lucianic Nero . In: The Journal of Hellenic Studies 119, 1999, pp. 142–160, here: 143f.
  57. ↑ Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 562; Lutz (1947), p. 23.
  58. ↑ Philostratus, Vita Apollonii 4,35.
  59. ↑ Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 561f .; Geytenbeek (1963), pp. 5f .; Lutz (1947), p. 21, note 85.
  60. ↑ Philostratus, Vita sophistarum 2,1,556-558.
  61. ↑ Goulet-Cazé (2005), pp. 562f .; Geytenbeek (1963), pp. 6f .; Lutz (1947), p. 21, note 85.
  62. ↑ Justin, Apologia 2.8.
  63. ↑ Origen, Contra Celsum 3.66.
  64. ↑ Clemens, Paidagogos 1,4.
  65. ↑ Johannes Stelzenberger, The Relationship of the Early Christian Moral Doctrine to the Ethics of the Stoa , Hildesheim, Zurich, New York 1989, p. 326 with further sources.
  66. ↑ Stelzenberger (1989), pp. 453-459 with numerous comparisons. On the theory (which is no longer represented today) that Clemens processed a text by Musonius in the second and third books of the Paidagogos , see Geytenbeek (1963), p. 19f.
  67. ↑ Ambrosius, De officiis ministrorum 2,30,153; Musonius, fragment 28; Stelzenberger (1989), pp. 338f.
  68. ^ Rohde, The Greek Roman and Its Precursors , 3rd Edition, Leipzig 1900, pp. 593f. Note 2.
  69. ↑ Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 570.
  70. ↑ For older research history see Geytenbeek (1963), pp. 15–19; Goulet-Cazé (2005), p. 566f, offers a bibliography of more recent detailed studies.
This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on September 30, 2009 .
personal data
SURNAME Musonius Rufus, Gaius
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Rufus, Gaius Musonius
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Roman philosopher
DATE OF BIRTH before 30
PLACE OF BIRTH Volsinii
DATE OF DEATH before 102