Echinostoma: Difference between revisions
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==Taxonomy== |
==Taxonomy== |
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It has been estimated that there are between 61 and 114 species of ''Echinostoma''.<ref name="AinP" /> ''Echinostoma'' are difficult to [[biological classification|classify]] and are known as a [[cryptic species complex|cryptic species]] (different lineages are considered to be the same species, due to high morphological similarity between them).<ref name="Detwiler2010">{{Cite journal | |
It has been estimated that there are between 61 and 114 species of ''Echinostoma''.<ref name="AinP" /> ''Echinostoma'' are difficult to [[biological classification|classify]] and are known as a [[cryptic species complex|cryptic species]] (different lineages are considered to be the same species, due to high morphological similarity between them).<ref name="Detwiler2010">{{Cite journal |author1=Detwiler JT |author2=Bos DH |author3=Minchella DJ | title= Revealing the secret lives of cryptic species: Examining the phylogenetic relationships of echinostome parasites in North America | journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] | volume=55 | year=2010 | pages=611–620 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.004}}</ref> Many [[species]] of ''Echinostoma'' have been re-classified several times. For example, the species now known as ''Echinostoma caproni'', was previously known by a variety of names including ''E. liei'', ''E. parasensei'' and ''E. togoensis''.<ref name="AinP">{{cite book |last1=Huffman|first1=Jane E|last2=Fried|first2=Bernard|editor1-first=John R|editor1-last=Baker|editor2-first=Ralph|editor2-last=Muller|title=Advances in Parasitology|publisher=Academic Press Limited|year= 1990|pages=215–269 |chapter=Echinostoma and Echinostomiasis |isbn=0-12-031729-X}}</ref> |
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Methods for classifying ''Echinostoma'' species, such as the ''[[Echinostoma revolutum]]'' group, were devised by Kanev.<ref name="Kanev1994">{{Cite journal | author=Kanev I | title= Life-cycle, delimitation and redescription of ''Echinostoma revolutum'' (Froelich, 1802) (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae)| journal=[[Systematic Parasitology]] | volume=28 | year=1994 | pages=125–144 | doi=10.1007/BF00009591}}</ref> The ''Echinostoma'' species in this group are now classified according to their shared [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] and biological characteristics, such as the presence of 37 collar spines.<ref name="Kanev1994" /> |
Methods for classifying ''Echinostoma'' species, such as the ''[[Echinostoma revolutum]]'' group, were devised by Kanev.<ref name="Kanev1994">{{Cite journal | author=Kanev I | title= Life-cycle, delimitation and redescription of ''Echinostoma revolutum'' (Froelich, 1802) (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae)| journal=[[Systematic Parasitology]] | volume=28 | year=1994 | pages=125–144 | doi=10.1007/BF00009591}}</ref> The ''Echinostoma'' species in this group are now classified according to their shared [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] and biological characteristics, such as the presence of 37 collar spines.<ref name="Kanev1994" /> |
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Molecular methods, such as sequencing [[mitochondrial DNA]] and [[ribosomal DNA]], are also used to distinguish between species of ''Echinostoma'' as an alternative to morphological classification methods.<ref>{{Cite journal | |
Molecular methods, such as sequencing [[mitochondrial DNA]] and [[ribosomal DNA]], are also used to distinguish between species of ''Echinostoma'' as an alternative to morphological classification methods.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Morgan JAT, Blair D| title= Relative merits of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacers and mitochondrial CO1 and ND1 genes for distinguishing among ''Echinostoma'' species (Trematoda)| journal=[[Parasitology (journal)|Parasitology]] | volume=116 | year=1998 | pages=289–297 | doi=10.1017/s0031182097002217}}</ref> |
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==Morphology== |
==Morphology== |
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==Geographic distribution== |
==Geographic distribution== |
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The [[genus]] ''Echinostoma'' has a global [[species distribution|distribution]]. These parasites are particularly common in South East Asia, in countries such as [[South Korea]] and the [[Philippines]].<ref name="Furst2012"> |
The [[genus]] ''Echinostoma'' has a global [[species distribution|distribution]]. These parasites are particularly common in South East Asia, in countries such as [[South Korea]] and the [[Philippines]].<ref name="Furst2012"> |
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{{Cite journal | |
{{Cite journal |author1=Fürst T |author2=Keiser J |author3=Utzinger A | title= Global burden of human food-borne trematodiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal=[[The Lancet Infectious Diseases]] | volume=12 | year=2012 | pages=210–221| doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70294-8}}</ref> However, they are also found in some European countries,<ref name="Kanev1994"/> and species such as ''Echinostoma trivolvis'' are found in [[North America]].<ref name="Kanev1995">{{Cite journal |author1=Kanev I |author2=Fried B |author3=Dimitrov V |author4=Radev V | title= Redescription of ''Echinostoma trivolvis'' (Cort, 1914) (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae) with a discussion on its identity | journal=[[Systematic Parasitology]] | volume=32 | year=1995 | pages=61–70| doi=10.1007/BF00009468}}</ref> |
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==Life cycle== |
==Life cycle== |
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''Echinostoma'' have three [[host (biology)|hosts]] in their [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]]: a first [[intermediate host]], a second intermediate host and a [[host (biology)|definitive host]]. [[Snails|Snail]] species such as ''[[Lymnaea]]'' spp. are common intermediate hosts for ''Echinostoma'',<ref name="AinP" /> although [[fish]] and other [[Bivalvia|bivalve molluscs]] can be also be intermediate hosts for these parasites.<ref name="CDC Index">{{cite web|title=Echinostomiasis|url=http://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/echinostomiasis/index.html|author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6OACsim37|archivedate=18 March 2014|date=29 November 2013}}</ref> |
''Echinostoma'' have three [[host (biology)|hosts]] in their [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]]: a first [[intermediate host]], a second intermediate host and a [[host (biology)|definitive host]]. [[Snails|Snail]] species such as ''[[Lymnaea]]'' spp. are common intermediate hosts for ''Echinostoma'',<ref name="AinP" /> although [[fish]] and other [[Bivalvia|bivalve molluscs]] can be also be intermediate hosts for these parasites.<ref name="CDC Index">{{cite web|title=Echinostomiasis|url=http://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/echinostomiasis/index.html|author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6OACsim37|archivedate=18 March 2014|date=29 November 2013}}</ref> |
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''Echinostoma'' species have low specificity for their definitive [[host (biology)|hosts]], and can [[infection|infect]] a variety of different [[species]] of [[animal]], including [[amphibian]]s,<ref name="Belden2006">{{Cite journal | author=Belden LK | title= Impact of eutrophication on wood frog, ''Rana sylvatica'', tadpoles infected with ''Echinostoma trivolvis'' cercariae| journal=[[Canadian Journal of Zoology]] | volume=84 | year=2006| pages=1315–1321| doi=10.1139/z06-119 }}</ref> [[water bird|aquatic birds]], [[mammal]]s and humans.<ref name="CDC Index" /> A definitive host which is infected with ''Echinostoma'' will shed unembryonated ''Echinostoma'' [[egg]]s in their faeces. When the eggs are in contact with [[fresh water]] they may become embryonated, and will then hatch and release [[trematode lifecycle stages|miracidia]].<ref name="Toledo2012" /> The miracidia stage of ''Echinostoma'' is free-swimming, and actively penetrates the first intermediate snail host, which then becomes infected.<ref name="Toledo2012">{{Cite journal | |
''Echinostoma'' species have low specificity for their definitive [[host (biology)|hosts]], and can [[infection|infect]] a variety of different [[species]] of [[animal]], including [[amphibian]]s,<ref name="Belden2006">{{Cite journal | author=Belden LK | title= Impact of eutrophication on wood frog, ''Rana sylvatica'', tadpoles infected with ''Echinostoma trivolvis'' cercariae| journal=[[Canadian Journal of Zoology]] | volume=84 | year=2006| pages=1315–1321| doi=10.1139/z06-119 }}</ref> [[water bird|aquatic birds]], [[mammal]]s and humans.<ref name="CDC Index" /> A definitive host which is infected with ''Echinostoma'' will shed unembryonated ''Echinostoma'' [[egg]]s in their faeces. When the eggs are in contact with [[fresh water]] they may become embryonated, and will then hatch and release [[trematode lifecycle stages|miracidia]].<ref name="Toledo2012" /> The miracidia stage of ''Echinostoma'' is free-swimming, and actively penetrates the first intermediate snail host, which then becomes infected.<ref name="Toledo2012">{{Cite journal |author1=Toledo R |author2=Esteban JG |author3=Fried B | title= Current status of food-borne trematode infections | journal=[[European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases]] | volume=31 | year=1995 | pages=1705–1718 | doi=10.1007/s10096-011-1515-4 }}</ref> |
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[[File:Echinostomiasis Life Cycle no watermark.gif|thumb|right|upright=1.4|alt=An illustrated life cycle of the ''Echinostoma'' parasite, beginning with the emergence of unembryonated eggs from an infected person, and ending with mature adults in a host. The life cycle is described in the adjacent text.|Life cycle of ''Echinostoma''.]] |
[[File:Echinostomiasis Life Cycle no watermark.gif|thumb|right|upright=1.4|alt=An illustrated life cycle of the ''Echinostoma'' parasite, beginning with the emergence of unembryonated eggs from an infected person, and ending with mature adults in a host. The life cycle is described in the adjacent text.|Life cycle of ''Echinostoma''.]] |
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In the first intermediate host, the miracidium undergoes [[asexual reproduction]]<ref name="Trouve1999">{{Cite journal | |
In the first intermediate host, the miracidium undergoes [[asexual reproduction]]<ref name="Trouve1999">{{Cite journal |author1=Trouvé S |author2=Renaud F |author3=Durand P |author4=Jourdane J | title= Reproductive and mate choice strategies in the hermaphroditic flatworm ''Echinostoma caproni'' | journal=[[Journal of Heredity]] | volume=90| year=1999 | pages=582–585 | doi=10.1093/jhered/90.5.582 }}</ref> for several weeks, which includes [[trematode lifecycle stages|sporocyst]] formation, a few generations of [[trematode lifecycle stages|rediae]] and the production of [[trematode lifecycle stages|cercariae]].<ref name="Toledo2012" /> The cercariae are released from the snail host into water and are also free-swimming. The cercariae penetrate a second intermediate host, or they remain in the first intermediate host, where they form metacercariae.<ref name="CDC Index" /> Definitive hosts become infected by eating secondary hosts which are infected with metacercariae.<ref name="CDC Index" /> Once the metacercariae have been eaten, they excyst in the intestine of the definitive host<ref name="CDC Index" /> where the parasite then develops into an adult. |
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''Echinostoma'' are [[hermaphrodite]]s. A single adult individual has both male and female reproductive organs, and is capable of self-fertilization.<ref name="Trouve1999" /> [[Sexual reproduction]] of adult ''Echinostoma'' in the definitive host leads to the production of unembryonated eggs.<ref name="Toledo2012" /> The life cycle of ''Echinostoma'' is temperature dependent, and occurs quicker at higher temperatures.<ref name="AinP" /> ''Echinostoma'' eggs can survive for about 5 months and still have the ability to hatch and develop into the next life cycle stage.<ref name="Christensen1980">{{Cite journal | |
''Echinostoma'' are [[hermaphrodite]]s. A single adult individual has both male and female reproductive organs, and is capable of self-fertilization.<ref name="Trouve1999" /> [[Sexual reproduction]] of adult ''Echinostoma'' in the definitive host leads to the production of unembryonated eggs.<ref name="Toledo2012" /> The life cycle of ''Echinostoma'' is temperature dependent, and occurs quicker at higher temperatures.<ref name="AinP" /> ''Echinostoma'' eggs can survive for about 5 months and still have the ability to hatch and develop into the next life cycle stage.<ref name="Christensen1980">{{Cite journal |author1=Christensen NØ |author2=Frandsen F |author3=Roushdy MZ | title= The influence of environmental conditions and parasite-intermediate host-related factors on the transmission of ''Echinostoma liei''| journal=[[Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde]] | volume=63| year=1980 | pages=47–63 }}</ref> |
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==Echinostomiasis== |
==Echinostomiasis== |
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[[Infection]] of humans with members of the family Echinostomatidae, including ''Echinostoma'', can lead to a disease called echinostomiasis. ''E. revolutum'', ''E. echinatum'', ''E. malaynum'' and ''E. hortense'' are particularly common causes of ''Echinostoma'' infections in humans.<ref name="AinP" /> Humans can become infected with ''Echinostoma'' by eating infected raw or undercooked [[food]], particularly [[fish]], [[clam]]s and snails.<ref name="Toledo2012" /> Infection with these parasites tends to be common in regions where cultural dishes require the use of raw or undercooked food that may be infected with ''Echinostoma''.<ref name="Keiser2005">{{Cite journal | |
[[Infection]] of humans with members of the family Echinostomatidae, including ''Echinostoma'', can lead to a disease called echinostomiasis. ''E. revolutum'', ''E. echinatum'', ''E. malaynum'' and ''E. hortense'' are particularly common causes of ''Echinostoma'' infections in humans.<ref name="AinP" /> Humans can become infected with ''Echinostoma'' by eating infected raw or undercooked [[food]], particularly [[fish]], [[clam]]s and snails.<ref name="Toledo2012" /> Infection with these parasites tends to be common in regions where cultural dishes require the use of raw or undercooked food that may be infected with ''Echinostoma''.<ref name="Keiser2005">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Keiser J, Utzinger J| title= Emerging foodborne trematodiasis | journal=[[Emerging Infectious Diseases]] | volume=11 | year=2005 | pages=1507–1514 | doi=10.3201/eid1110.050614 | pmid=16318688}}</ref> A mild infection may not have any [[symptom]]s.<ref name="Carney1991">{{Cite journal | author=Carney WP | title= Echinostomiasis - a snail-borne intestinal trematode zoonosis| journal=[[Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health]] | volume=22 | year=1991 | pages=Suppl:206–211 }}</ref> If symptoms are present they can include abdominal pain, [[diarrhea|diarrhoea]], tiredness and weight loss.<ref name="Toledo2012" /> |
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=== Epidemiology of echinostomiasis === |
=== Epidemiology of echinostomiasis === |
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Echinostomiasis is [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] in South East Asia and the Far East, in countries including [[China]], Korea, [[Taiwan]], Philippines, [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[India]].<ref name="Fried2004">{{Cite journal | |
Echinostomiasis is [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] in South East Asia and the Far East, in countries including [[China]], Korea, [[Taiwan]], Philippines, [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[India]].<ref name="Fried2004">{{Cite journal |author1=Fried B |author2=Graczyk TK |author3=Tamang L | title= Food-borne intestinal trematodiases in humans | journal=[[Parasitology Research]] | volume=93 | year=2004 | pages=159–170 | doi=10.1007/s00436-004-1112-x }}</ref> Echinostomiasis has also been reported in [[Japan]], [[Singapore]], [[Romania]], [[Hungary]] and [[Italy]].<ref name="Fried2004" /> The [[prevalence]] of echinostomiasis varies between countries<ref name="Fried2004" /> but there tend to be foci of infection in areas where raw or undercooked hosts of ''Echinostoma'', such as snails or fish, are widely consumed.<ref name="Carney1991" /> |
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=== Pathogenesis === |
=== Pathogenesis === |
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=== Treatment and prevention === |
=== Treatment and prevention === |
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Echinostomiasis can be treated with the [[anthelmintic]] drug [[praziquantel]], as for other intestinal trematode infections.<ref name="Toledo2012" /> Side effects of anthelmintic drug treatment may include [[nausea]], abdominal pain, [[headache]]s or [[dizziness]].<ref name="Toledo2012" /><ref name="KJUJ2004">{{Cite journal | |
Echinostomiasis can be treated with the [[anthelmintic]] drug [[praziquantel]], as for other intestinal trematode infections.<ref name="Toledo2012" /> Side effects of anthelmintic drug treatment may include [[nausea]], abdominal pain, [[headache]]s or [[dizziness]].<ref name="Toledo2012" /><ref name="KJUJ2004">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Keiser J, Utzinger J| title= Chemotherapy for major food-borne trematodes: a review| journal=[[Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy]] | volume=5 | year=2004 | pages=1711–1726| doi=10.1517/14656566.5.8.1711 }}</ref> |
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Echinostomiasis can be controlled at the same time as other [[foodborne illness|food-borne]] parasite infections, using existing control programmes.<ref name="Fried2004" /> Interrupting the parasite’s lifecycle by efficient diagnosis and subsequent treatment of infected individuals, and preventing reinfection, may help to control this disease.<ref name="Graczyk1998">{{Cite journal | |
Echinostomiasis can be controlled at the same time as other [[foodborne illness|food-borne]] parasite infections, using existing control programmes.<ref name="Fried2004" /> Interrupting the parasite’s lifecycle by efficient diagnosis and subsequent treatment of infected individuals, and preventing reinfection, may help to control this disease.<ref name="Graczyk1998">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Graczyk TK, Fried B| title= Echinostomiasis: a common but forgotten food-borne disease | journal=[[The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene]] | volume=58 | year=1998 | pages=501–504 }}</ref> As echinostomiasis is acquired through the consumption of raw or undercooked infected food, cooking food thoroughly will prevent infection. |
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==References== |
==References== |
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Revision as of 20:32, 26 May 2016
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| Two specimens of Echinostoma revolutum | |
| Scientific classification | |
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| Genus: | Echinostoma |
Echinostoma is a genus of trematode parasites, which can infect both humans and other animals. These intestinal flukes have a three-host life cycle with snails or aquatic organisms as intermediate hosts, and a variety of animals, including humans, as their definitive hosts.
Echinostoma infect the gastrointestinal tract of humans, and can cause a disease known as echinostomiasis. The parasites are spread when humans or animals eat infected raw or undercooked food, such as bivalve molluscs or fish [2]
Taxonomy
It has been estimated that there are between 61 and 114 species of Echinostoma.[3] Echinostoma are difficult to classify and are known as a cryptic species (different lineages are considered to be the same species, due to high morphological similarity between them).[4] Many species of Echinostoma have been re-classified several times. For example, the species now known as Echinostoma caproni, was previously known by a variety of names including E. liei, E. parasensei and E. togoensis.[3]
Methods for classifying Echinostoma species, such as the Echinostoma revolutum group, were devised by Kanev.[5] The Echinostoma species in this group are now classified according to their shared morphological and biological characteristics, such as the presence of 37 collar spines.[5]
Molecular methods, such as sequencing mitochondrial DNA and ribosomal DNA, are also used to distinguish between species of Echinostoma as an alternative to morphological classification methods.[6]
Morphology
Echinostoma are internal digenean trematode parasites which infect the intestines and bile duct[3] of their hosts.
The length and width of adult Echinostoma varies between species, but they tend to be approximately 2-10mm × 1-2mm in size.[7]
Adult Echinostoma have two suckers: an anterior oral sucker and a ventral sucker.[3] They also have a characteristic head collar with spines surrounding their oral sucker.[8] The number of collar spines varies between Echinostoma species, but there are usually between 27 and 51.[3] These spines can be arranged in one or two circles around the sucker, and their arrangement may be a characteristic feature of an Echinostoma species.[3]
Echinostoma have a digestive system consisting of a pharynx, oesophagus and an excretory pore.[3]
Echinostoma are hermaphrodites,[8] and have both male and female reproductive organs. The testes are found in the posterior part of the fluke’s body, in the area furthest from the mouth.[3] The ovary is also found in this location, close to the testes.[3]
The eggs (ova) of Echinostoma are operculate [3] and vary in size, but are typically in the range of 80-135μm × 55-80μm.[9]
Geographic distribution
The genus Echinostoma has a global distribution. These parasites are particularly common in South East Asia, in countries such as South Korea and the Philippines.[10] However, they are also found in some European countries,[5] and species such as Echinostoma trivolvis are found in North America.[11]
Life cycle
Echinostoma have three hosts in their life cycle: a first intermediate host, a second intermediate host and a definitive host. Snail species such as Lymnaea spp. are common intermediate hosts for Echinostoma,[3] although fish and other bivalve molluscs can be also be intermediate hosts for these parasites.[12]
Echinostoma species have low specificity for their definitive hosts, and can infect a variety of different species of animal, including amphibians,[13] aquatic birds, mammals and humans.[12] A definitive host which is infected with Echinostoma will shed unembryonated Echinostoma eggs in their faeces. When the eggs are in contact with fresh water they may become embryonated, and will then hatch and release miracidia.[2] The miracidia stage of Echinostoma is free-swimming, and actively penetrates the first intermediate snail host, which then becomes infected.[2]
In the first intermediate host, the miracidium undergoes asexual reproduction[14] for several weeks, which includes sporocyst formation, a few generations of rediae and the production of cercariae.[2] The cercariae are released from the snail host into water and are also free-swimming. The cercariae penetrate a second intermediate host, or they remain in the first intermediate host, where they form metacercariae.[12] Definitive hosts become infected by eating secondary hosts which are infected with metacercariae.[12] Once the metacercariae have been eaten, they excyst in the intestine of the definitive host[12] where the parasite then develops into an adult.
Echinostoma are hermaphrodites. A single adult individual has both male and female reproductive organs, and is capable of self-fertilization.[14] Sexual reproduction of adult Echinostoma in the definitive host leads to the production of unembryonated eggs.[2] The life cycle of Echinostoma is temperature dependent, and occurs quicker at higher temperatures.[3] Echinostoma eggs can survive for about 5 months and still have the ability to hatch and develop into the next life cycle stage.[15]
Echinostomiasis
Infection of humans with members of the family Echinostomatidae, including Echinostoma, can lead to a disease called echinostomiasis. E. revolutum, E. echinatum, E. malaynum and E. hortense are particularly common causes of Echinostoma infections in humans.[3] Humans can become infected with Echinostoma by eating infected raw or undercooked food, particularly fish, clams and snails.[2] Infection with these parasites tends to be common in regions where cultural dishes require the use of raw or undercooked food that may be infected with Echinostoma.[16] A mild infection may not have any symptoms.[17] If symptoms are present they can include abdominal pain, diarrhoea, tiredness and weight loss.[2]
Epidemiology of echinostomiasis
Echinostomiasis is endemic in South East Asia and the Far East, in countries including China, Korea, Taiwan, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia and India.[18] Echinostomiasis has also been reported in Japan, Singapore, Romania, Hungary and Italy.[18] The prevalence of echinostomiasis varies between countries[18] but there tend to be foci of infection in areas where raw or undercooked hosts of Echinostoma, such as snails or fish, are widely consumed.[17]
Pathogenesis
Echinostoma are not highly pathogenic.[17] Symptoms of greater severity tend to be seen in an echinostomiasis infection where there is a higher number of flukes.[17] The flukes cause damage to the intestinal mucosa, which leads to ulceration and inflammation.[17]
Diagnosis
An Echinostoma infection can be diagnosed by observing the parasite eggs in the faeces of an infected individual, under a microscope. Methods such as the Kato-Katz procedure can be used to do this.[2] The eggs typically have a yellow-brown appearance, and are ellipsoid in shape.[17] To confirm which species is causing the infection adult worms must be recovered from the infected individual, such as with anthelmintic treatment.[17]
Treatment and prevention
Echinostomiasis can be treated with the anthelmintic drug praziquantel, as for other intestinal trematode infections.[2] Side effects of anthelmintic drug treatment may include nausea, abdominal pain, headaches or dizziness.[2][19]
Echinostomiasis can be controlled at the same time as other food-borne parasite infections, using existing control programmes.[18] Interrupting the parasite’s lifecycle by efficient diagnosis and subsequent treatment of infected individuals, and preventing reinfection, may help to control this disease.[20] As echinostomiasis is acquired through the consumption of raw or undercooked infected food, cooking food thoroughly will prevent infection.
References
- ^ Rudolphi K. (1809). Entoz. Hist. Nat. 2(1): 38.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Toledo R; Esteban JG; Fried B (1995). "Current status of food-borne trematode infections". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 31: 1705–1718. doi:10.1007/s10096-011-1515-4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Huffman, Jane E; Fried, Bernard (1990). "Echinostoma and Echinostomiasis". In Baker, John R; Muller, Ralph (eds.). Advances in Parasitology. Academic Press Limited. pp. 215–269. ISBN 0-12-031729-X.
- ^ Detwiler JT; Bos DH; Minchella DJ (2010). "Revealing the secret lives of cryptic species: Examining the phylogenetic relationships of echinostome parasites in North America". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 55: 611–620. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2010.01.004.
- ^ a b c Kanev I (1994). "Life-cycle, delimitation and redescription of Echinostoma revolutum (Froelich, 1802) (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae)". Systematic Parasitology. 28: 125–144. doi:10.1007/BF00009591.
- ^ Morgan J, Blair D (1998). "Relative merits of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacers and mitochondrial CO1 and ND1 genes for distinguishing among Echinostoma species (Trematoda)". Parasitology. 116: 289–297. doi:10.1017/s0031182097002217.
{{cite journal}}: Vancouver style error: initials in name 1 (help) - ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Echinostomiasis". Archived from the original on 18 March 2014.
- ^ a b Gonçalves JP, Oliveira-Menezes A, Maldonado Junior A, et al. (2013). "Evaluation of Praziquantel effects on Echinostoma paraensei ultrastructure". Veterinary Parasitology. 194: 16–25. doi:10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.12.042.
- ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (29 November 2013). "Echinostomiasis". Archived from the original on 18 March 2014.
- ^ Fürst T; Keiser J; Utzinger A (2012). "Global burden of human food-borne trematodiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 12: 210–221. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(11)70294-8.
- ^ Kanev I; Fried B; Dimitrov V; Radev V (1995). "Redescription of Echinostoma trivolvis (Cort, 1914) (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae) with a discussion on its identity". Systematic Parasitology. 32: 61–70. doi:10.1007/BF00009468.
- ^ a b c d e Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (29 November 2013). "Echinostomiasis". Archived from the original on 18 March 2014.
- ^ Belden LK (2006). "Impact of eutrophication on wood frog, Rana sylvatica, tadpoles infected with Echinostoma trivolvis cercariae". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 84: 1315–1321. doi:10.1139/z06-119.
- ^ a b Trouvé S; Renaud F; Durand P; Jourdane J (1999). "Reproductive and mate choice strategies in the hermaphroditic flatworm Echinostoma caproni". Journal of Heredity. 90: 582–585. doi:10.1093/jhered/90.5.582.
- ^ Christensen NØ; Frandsen F; Roushdy MZ (1980). "The influence of environmental conditions and parasite-intermediate host-related factors on the transmission of Echinostoma liei". Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde. 63: 47–63.
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