Water resources management in Peru
| Mexico: Water Resources Management | |
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| Withdrawals by sector 1992 (%) | Agriculture 86% Industry 7% Domestic 7% |
| Land Area | 1,280,000 km2 |
| Total internal water resources (surface water+groundwater-overlap) | 1,616 km2 |
| Surface water produced internally | 1,616 km2 |
| Groudwater recharge | 303 km2 |
| Overlap (shared by groundwater and surface water) | 303 km2 |
| Per capita | 60,929 m2 |
| Total natural renewable water resources | 1,913 km2 |
| Per capita natural renewable water resources | 72,127 km2 |
| Agricultural Land (% of land area) | 17% |
| Total area equipped for irrigation (% of cultivated area) | 27.7% |
| Irrigated area | 1.2m ha (equipped) |
| Irrigation systems | 1.1m ha (surface irrigation)
0.12m ha (sprinkler irrigation) 0.07m ha (localized irrigation) |
| Wetland designated as Ramsar sites, 1986 | 6,780,643 ha |
| Hydropower generation (as a percentage of total electricity generation) | 72% |
Peru accounts for 4% of the world’s annual renewable water resources, a large part of which is located in the Amazon region, where agricultural production is lower than in the inter-Andean valleys and the Western plains. In comparison, more than half of the Peru's roughly 28 million inhabitants are located along the dry Pacific coastal plains, an area highly dependent on runoff from the Andes, producing two-thirds of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP). The highland and Amazon regions are home to most of Peru's poor.
The Peruvian Government is currently aiming to incorporate sustainability aspects of integrated water management and water demand management.
Water management history and recent developments
In the past century, the Peruvian Government has been the chief authority for water resources management and the principal investor in hydraulic infrastructure. Hydraulic development has traditionally been aimed at building dams and irrigation infrastructure to cope with the increasing water demand of population growth and irrigation. In the 1950s and 1960s, the San Lorenzo dam and Tinajones dam, the largest Peruvian dams, were built in the northern region. In the 1970s, other mayor hydraulic infrastructures were developed, including dams and irrigation and drainage systems, mainly in the coastal region Template:Ref harv
In the past two decades Peruvians has experienced increased access to water supply and sanitation although there is a need to continue improving the sector until it covers the entire population. Hydropower has become the country's main source of electricity. There has been a decrease in the quality of aquatic ecosystems, due mostly to increased competition for water resources and increased pollution.
In the past five years, the Peruvian Government has aimed to modernize water resources management (WRM). The National Water Resources Management Initiative, currently pending approval by the Peruvian Congress, aims to create a cohesive institutional and legal framework, financial sustainability for infrastructural O&M and development, conservation of aquatic ecosystems, and resilience to climate change impacts Template:Ref harv
Water resource base
Surface and ground water resources
Peru has a large amount of available water resources, with 106 river basins and a per capita availability of 77,600 m3. The average annual rainfall is 1,738 m2. Two-thirds of the total rainfall is discharged between January and April, only 25% of which is used for urban and agricultural consumption Template:Ref harv.
The Andes divide Peru into three natural drainage basins: (i) Pacific basin, with 53 rivers, (ii) Atlantic basin, with 32 rivers, and (iii) Titicaca basin, with 13 rivers. The dry Pacific basin, with 37 million m3 available per year, account for 1.8% of Peru's water resources. Some 53 rivers, flowing west form the Andes, supply the bulk of the water to the coast. Of these rivers, only about 30% are perennial. From 1984 to 2000, the average water availability decreased to 33 million m3 and from 2003 to 2004 to 20 million m3. Agriculture accounts for the withdrawal of 14 million m3 on the coast and domestic withdrawals account for 2 million m3Template:Ref harv.
The Atlantic basin holds 97% of all available water and receives nearly 2 billion cubic meters of rainfall per year. Lake Titicaca receives 10 million cubic meters per year Template:Ref harv.
| River Basin | Surface Area (1000 km2) | Water Availability (Annual thousand m3) | Water Availability (m3 per capita/year) | Number of Rivers |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pacific | 279,7 | 37,363 | 2,027 | 53 |
| Atlantic | 958,5 | 1,998,405 | 291,703 | 32 |
| Titicaca | 47,0 | 10,172 | 9,715 | 13 |
| Total | 1285,2 | 245,940 | 77,534 | 98 |
Source: INEI (2007)
External resources of water enter Peru though tributaries of the Amazon, in the Atlantic river basin, supplying 125 m3 annually. The main rivers are Napo, Tigre, Pastaza, Santiago, Morona, Cenepa, and Chinchipe.
The National Institute of Natural Resources (Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales INRENA) estimates the total amount of groundwater available on the coast to be between 35,000 and 40,000 million m3. There is specific data available only for eight valleys on the coast with 9,025 million m3 of groundwater available. Around 1,842 million m3 of water are actually extracted on the coast Template:Ref harv. No sufficient information is available regarding groundwater availability and withdrawal in the highland and Amazon regions Template:Ref harv
Groundwater withdrawal per sector in Peruvian coast (5)
| Sector | Water Withdrawal (million m3) | Water Withdrawal (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Urban | 367.0 | 19.9 |
| Agricultural | 911.0 | 49.5 |
| Industrial | 553.0 | 30.1 |
Source: INRENA
Storage capacity and infrastructure
In 1980, INRENA established an inventory of Peru's water storage capacity, including lakes and dams. Peru has 12,201 lakes, 3,896 of which are located in the Pacific basin, 7,441 in the Atlantic basin, 841 in the Titicaca basin, and 23 in the closed basin of Huarmicocha. INRENA has inventoried 186 lakes in operation with a total capacity of 3,028.07 million m3 and 342 studied lakes with a total capacity 3,953.04 million m3. Currently the largest number of lakes in operation are located in the Pacific basin, with 105 lakes and a total capacity of 1,378.58 million m3, followed by the Atlantic basin with 76 lakes and a capacity of 1604.73 million m3. The Pacific basin also has the largest number of studied lagoons, with a total of 204 lakes snf a total capacity of 616.62 million m3, followed by the Atlantic basin with 133 lakes and a capacity of 3,006.42 m3.
Peru also has 23 dams with a total capacity of 1,941.88 million m3, and 238 studied dams with a total capacity of 44,028.04 million m3. The Pacific basin has 21 dams in operation with a total capacity of 1,875.88 million m3; the Atlantic basin has 2 dams with a capacity of 66,000 million m3. The Pacific basin also has the largest number of studied dams, a total of 126 with a capacity of 17,200.60 million m3. The Atlantic basin has 105 with an storage capacity of 26,274.83 million m3.
The largest reservoirs are Poechos with a capacity of 1,000.00 m3, Tinajones with 320.00 million m3, San Lorenzo with 258.40 million m3, and El Fraile with 200.00 million m3, all of them in the coastal region Template:Ref harv.
Water quality
The gradual decrease in Peru's water quality is due to the release of untreated effluents from mining, industries, municipalities, and agriculture. Of the 53 rivers in the coastal area, 16 are partly polluted by lead, manganese and iron-mainly due to mining-threatening irrigation and the cost of potable water supplies Template:Ref harv. In particular, MINAG considers "alarming" the quality of the Moche, Santa, Mantaro, Chillon, Rimac, Tambo, and Chili Rivers. Boron and manganese from El Ayro, upstream from Tacna, are jeopardizing the quality of groundwater for domestic and industrial supply in the southern department of Tacna Template:Ref harv. Moreover, the 18 mining facilities situated along the Mantaro River discharge untreated water into the main stream, threatening water supply for the country's largest hydroelectric facility.
In the highland and Amazon areas, excessive deforestation due to nomadic agriculture practices is causing erosion problems. In the Sierra 55-60% of the land is affected and is increasing the amount of soil transported downstreamTemplate:Ref harv.
Water resources management by sector
Drinking water and sanitation
Domestic consumption accounts for 7% of water withdrawals in Peru. The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made significant advances in the last two decades, including the increase in water access from 30% to 62% between 1980 and 2004. Sanitation access in rural areas also increased from 9% to 30% from 1985 to 2004.[1] Progress has also been achieved in the disinfection of drinking water and in sewage treatment. In 2004, out of 27.5 million Peruvians, 74% resided in urban areas and 26% lived in rural areas. The coverage of drinking water service was 83%, and 63% had access to sanitation. Urban coverage was 89% for water and 74% for sanitation. In rural areas, coverage of drinking water was 65% and sanitation 32%. The population outside of water or sanitation services was 6.6 million and 11 million inhabitants in poor urban areas, rural areas, and small or midsized locations Template:Ref harv. In 2005, an average of 259 liters/person/day of water were produced in urban areas, a decrease of 26% since 1997 when production was at 352 liters/person/day.
Despite these advances, water supply and sanitation services in Peru are characterized by low coverage and poor quality of service, as well as the precarious financial situation of their providers. This, together with the lack of incentives to improve the sector's management, has reduced investment to a minimal level, which is beginning to affect the sector's sustainability Template:Ref harv.
Irrigation and drainage
About 80% of all water withdrawal in Peru is used for irrigation, yet much of this water (65%) is lost due to reliance on inefficient irrigation systems Template:Ref harv. The Costa contains 68% of total irrigation infrastructure (1.2 million ha, approximately), the Sierra 26%, and the Selva 6%.
Area with Irrigation Infrastructure and irrigated areas (In thousand of hectares)
| Region | Infrastructure (a) | % | Irrigated (b) | % | (b/a) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Costa | 1,190 | 68 | 736 | 66 | 61 |
| Sierra | 453 | 26 | 289 | 26 | 63 |
| Selva | 109 | 6 | 84 | 8 | 77 |
| Total | 1,752 | 100 | 1,109 | 100 |
Source: Portal Agrario (1994)
Ineffective irrigation has generated salinization and drainage problems in 300,000 hectares of the coastal valleys (of a total irrigated area of 736,000 hectares), jeopardizing these lands' productivity and the quality of Lima's urban water supply. Drainage problems are also affecting 150,000 hectares in the Amazon region Template:Ref harv. Agricultural runoff, together with mining and industrial waste water, is also having an impact on water quality.
Hydropower
In 2006, 72% of Peru's total electricity generation (27.4 TWh) came from hydroelectric plants Template:Ref harv, with conventional thermal plants only in operation during peak load periods or when hydroelectric output is curtailed by weather events. [2]. Hydropower accounts for 48% of total installed capacity. Non-consumptive water withdrawal for hydropower generation accounts for 11,138 million m3 per year. The largest hydroelectric facility in the country is the 900 MW Mantaro Complex in southern Peru, which is operated by state-owned Electroperu. The two hydroelectric plants at the complex generate over one-third of Peru’s total electricity supply.
Aquatic ecosystems
There are 12,201 lakes and lagoons in Peru, 3,896 of which are located in the Pacific basin; 7,441 in the Atlantic basin, 841 in the Titicaca basin, and 23 in the Huarmicocha system. Peru contains approximately 5 million ha of swamps and 4,500 ha of mangroves.
Peru's wetlands play an important role for rural communities. These wetlands are the source for animal protein and for totora, a plant used in the artisan production of boats and floating devices. Estuaries are also fundamental for the reproduction of several marine species that are basic for the fishing industry. Other uses such as industrial production of algae and bird-watching tourism are not yet fully discovered.
In 1996 the Government implemented a National Wetlands Conservation Strategy aimed at increasing the amount of mangroves, moors, estuaries, and lagoons considered to be protected areas. Uncertainties about land ownership, industrial pollution, urban sprawl, and deforestation continue to threaten wetland integrity in Peru. The complete Pucchun Lagoon in Arequipa, 5,000 ha, has been dried out for agricultural purposes. The Villa Swamp, located south of Lima, was reduced from its original 5,000 ha to 300 ha in 1989 due to urban sprawl.
Legal and institutional framework
Legal framework
Peru's newest Constitution, approved in 1993, aims to reinvigorate the economy as well as sustainable water resources management by promoting private participation in water management and limiting the Government’s role to law making. This new constitutional framework is aimed at a major decentralization of duties from the National Government to other national, regional, and local entities.
General Water Law 17752 (Ley General de Aguas, 1969) sets out the legal and institutional framework for WRM. It presents significant obstacles to carrying out effective sustainable integrated resources management since it does not recognize the multisectoral nature of water, the river basin as the geographical unit for WRM not that water is an economic good. The LGA establishes the following: (i) the National Government holds sole ownership and managerial responsibility for water resources; (ii) the National Water Authority is the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura MINAG); authority is executed by the Intendancy of Water Resources under INRENA (Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales); (iii) the Technical Administrator of the Irrigation Districts is the authority at Irrigation District level and the River Basin Authorities at the River Basin level; and (iv) the Health Ministry is responsible for water quality.
From 1993 to 2003, the Peruvian Government approved a number of sectoral laws regulating water use by different actors, such as the Law Promoting Investments in the Agricultural Sector (DL 653), the Law Promoting Investment in the Fisheries Sector (DL750), the General Hydrocarbon Law (DL 26221), the General Mining Law (DS 014-92-EM), the Law for Electric Concessions (DL 25844). and the General Tourism Law (Law No. 24027). The 1997 Natural Resources Law 26821 establishes a continuum of the sectoral division of water management. This law also allows the transfer of water rights from one party to another, which is incompatible with the General Water Law, and presents significant obstacles to the establishment of water property rights and water markets Template:Ref harv.
In the last five years, there has been a profound change in Peru's institutional framework, beginning with the modification to the Constitution and the approval of the Decentralization Law, Regional Government Law, and Municipalities Law. In 2003, with the official creation of Regional Governments, the National Government began transferring power to the departments.
A draft National Water Resources Management Initiative will recognize water's multisectoral nature and implement the appropriate institutional and legal framework to carry out integrated water resources management. This legislation is currently under review by the Agrarian Committee in the Peruvian Congress and it is not likely to be introduced until the end of the term in 2012.
Institutional organization
The institutional framework for water resources management at national level is fragmented. The major agency responsible for water management at national level is the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAG). In 2008, Peru’s Government created a National Water Authority, under MINAG, replacing the Intendancy of Water Resources, previously under INRENA. The National Water Authority (ANA) is responsible for the design and implementation of sustainable water resources policies and irrigation nationally Template:Ref harv. It should be noted that ANA does not presently have representation at the local level.
Other Ministries have sectoral inputs on water resources management: Agriculture for irrigation, Housing and Sanitation for domestic water use, Health for water quality, Trade and Tourism for hot springs and mineral water, Energy and Mining for hydropower and mining operations, Council of Ministries for environmental policy and energy and water tariff and services regulation, and Defense for hydro-climate information.
Regional Governments are responsible for coordinating water use management in each of Peru's departments. However, this poses a challenge for IWRM at the river basin level, since the administrative boundaries of the region do not coincide with those of the river basins. An additional challenge if that the regions are young and lack fundamental technical capacity and human resources to undertake IWRM.
The Irrigation District Technical Administration (Administracion Tecnica de Distrito de Riego-ATDR) is the authority at irrigation district level in charge of managing water for irrigation, granting water rights, and distributing water among various water users. ATDR is also the water conflict resolution body where there is not River Basing Agency (Autoridad Autonoma de Cuenca Hidrografica – AACH)
Finally, other actor involved in WRM at the local level are: (i) four River Basin Agencies (Jequetepeque, Chira-Piura-Chancay-Lambayeque, and Chillon-Rimac-Turin and Santa), (ii) eight local offices of the Environmental Health General Department (Direccion General de Salud Ambiental – DIGESA), and (iii) Water User Boards (WUBs) are responsible for operation and maintenance (O&M) of minor irrigation infrastructure.
Government strategy
In 2004, the Peruvian Government proposed a National Water Resources Management Strategy, which is currently being discussed and is pending approval. The main objectives are:
- Institutional renovation and a clear legal framework to include: (i) Creation of a single National Water Authority with the capacity to regulate and manage water quantity and quality; (ii) Resolution of current disparities between the Water Law and the Natural Resources Law, and transfer of irrigation system operation and maintenance to River Basin Authorities, promoting public participation in decision-making processes; and (iii) Institutional development strategies that formalize water and pollution rights and establish a comprehensive tariff system to cover O&M activities.
- Integrated Management of Water Resources: To address both water supply and demand, taking into consideration environmental, social and economic factors. It includes a plan to modernize Peru's existing irrigation infrastructure with the goal of increasing the overall efficiency of irrigation systems from 35% to 45-50%.
- Increased Quality of Water Resources: A conservation initiative for upstream water resources aimed at decreasing sedimentation; it creates a pollution control authority to monitor agricultural and industrial discharges, promotes water recycling, and improves coastal drainage and salinity problems.
- Disaster Management and Mitigation: Disaster mitigation efforts include consistent weather monitoring, reforestation in strategic upstream areas, water channelling, and improved urban planning (preventing settlements in high-risk areas).
- Capacity Building and Water Culture: Education program for preschool to college level students about the economic, social, and environmental value of water resources.
- Water Resources Information System: Strengthening of networks that monitor water quality and quantity; making accurate information publicly available.
Water pricing, cost recovery and subsidies
Agricultural and non agricultural surface water use fees are set annually by MINAG. There are no water use fees for groundwater.
Non agricultural water user fees are calculated annually in order to cover certain WRM functions following a methodology that is presently not reflected in the water charges regulation. There are three categories of water fees (minimum, medium, and maximum) depending on the relative water scarcity in each irrigation district. Water tariffs in Peru are somewhat low compared to other Latin American countries. Water bills are often not paid. (See water supply and sanitation in Peru)
In practice, WUBs set their own irrigation water tariff based on agreement with their governing body, and these rates are formely approved by the ATDR. Water is rarely metered and therefore fees are mostly based on hectarage and crop types rather than on volume of water used. Tariffs fluctuate from US$2.2 per ha to US$25.55 per ha, and collection rates vary from 10% in the Amazon and 68% in the Costa region [3]. Farmers contribute in cash through payment of the water tariff and in kind, through labor and materials, following ancestral practices. (See Irrigation in Peru)
Water Related Risks
The Peruvian piedmont and coastline are prone to devastating floods and mudslides, mainly due to heavy precipitation on degraded upper basins, whereas the southern part of the country is particularly prone to droughts. Aside from natural causes, such as El Niño Southern Oscillation, the effects of droughts and floods have been exacerbated by manmade interventions including soil erosion stemming from poor cropping and grazing practices, deforestation, and poor land use-practicesTemplate:Ref harv.
El Niño hits Peru approximately once every seven years and consists of heavy winds and rainfall associated with devastating floods and landslides. In 1997-1998 the costs of damages reached US$2 billion. Droughts severely affect the southern coast, producing agricultural looses as well as limitations on human water consumption.
Preventive laws and measures (related to zoning, deforestation, and so forth) are not enforced and there is no reliable early warning system network. The consequence is increasing negative impacts from droughts and floods on the different regions, with an increasing impact on Peru's economyTemplate:Ref harv.
Potential climate change impacts
The effects of climate change in Peru can be seen in more extreme weather conditions such as droughts and floods, El Niño Southern Oscillation, Template:Ref harv and the retreat of Andean glaciers.
A thorough assessment of the net impacts on Peru's water resources is still lacking. Climate change-related impacts in Peru include deterioration of watersheds and depletion of water recharge capacities, increased likelihood of flash fires, and biotic changes in ecosystem thresholds and composition, affecting their ability to store water. The effects and consequences may be different at the initial and final stages of glacier retreat and may differ depending on location.
High mountain ecosystems, including paramos (unique wetlands of the Northern Andes) and snowcapped terrains are among the environments most sensitive to climate change. These ecosystems have unique endemic flora and provide numerous valuable environmental goods and services. Although understanding of glacier retreat and its consequences has significantly increased, the consequences of climate change could have a negative impact on the functioning of páramos.
Data recently made available suggest that climate impacts have already altered the circulation patterns responsible for producing and moving water vapor to the region. These striking changes have likely contributed to the disappearance of high-altitude water bodies, as well as to the increased occurrence of natural and human-induced mountain fires.
Ongoing programs and initiatives
The Alan Garcia Administration is currently looking into desalinization as a National Priority to adapting to decreasing water availability. Peru’s Government in planning a US$1,5 billion investment to build two desalinization plants in Lima’s coast to supply water to 1,5 million peopleTemplate:Ref harv.
In 1997, the World Bank contributed US$85 million, out of a total of US$172.4 million, to a Subsectoral Irrigation Project (Proyecto Subsectorial de Irrigacion, See Irrigation in Peru) .
The National Water Resources Management Modernization Project (US$10 million) aims to strengthen the institutional capacity for integrated water resources management at the national level and in three river basins (Chancay-Lambayeque, Ica and Chili) Template:Ref harv. The Agricultural Research and Extension APL Phase 2 (US$69 million) aims to adopt sustainable agricultural practices in glacier-dependent watersheds.
In June 2007, the GEF Council approved the Regional Adaptation to the Impacts of Rapid Glacier Retreat in the Tropical Andes (Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru) Project. This project aims to implement adaptation measures to meet the anticipated consequences of the catastrophic glacier retreat induced by climate change.
In June 2007, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) approved US$200 million for a Water Resources Reform Program (WRRP) that would include hydraulic structures, and institutional and legal reforms. In August 2007, the IDB approved an additional US$5 million to support capacity building efforts contained in the WRRP. The IDB is also implementing a water resources management plan for Peru's Maschón and Chonta watersheds. The objective of this US$1.2 million grant is to define the appropriate measures for improving integrated water resources management.
Cited references
- Andina Andina, Agencia Peruana de Noticias (March 17 2008). "Melting glaciers threaten Peru". Andina.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - Europapress Europa, Press (March 12 2008). "Alan Garcia asegura que desalinizar las aguas del mar es un objetivo nacional". Europa Press.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - FAO Food and Agriculture Organization. "Perfiles de Paises:Peru". Aquastat. Retrieved February 15.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - Olson Olson, Douglas. "An opportunity for a different Peru: More prosperous, equitable and governable. Chapter 18: Water Resources". World Bank. Retrieved February 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - Comision Comision tecnica multisectorial. "Estrategia nacional para la gestión de los recursos hídricos continentales del Perú" (PDF). Ministerio de agricultura. Retrieved March 3.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - INRENA Oficina nacional de evaluación de recursos naturales (previous INRENA). "Inventario nacional de lagunas y represamientos" (PDF). INRENA. Retrieved March 3.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - MINAG Portal Agrario. "Historia del Riego y Drenaje en Peru". Portal Agrario. Retrieved February 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - MINEM Ministerio de energia y minas. "Anuario estadístico electricidad 2006". MINEM. Retrieved May 30.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - Pavez Alejandro Pavez Wellmann. "Las aguas subterraneas en la costa de Peru y el norte de Chile" (PDF). Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile. Retrieved February 28.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=ignored (|access-date=suggested) (help) - Ringler Ringler, Claudia; Rosegrant, Mark, W.; and Paisner, Michael S. (2000). "Irrigation and water resources in Latin America and the Caribbean: challenges and strategies" (PDF). EPTD Discussion Paper. 64 (A): 27.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Notes
- ^ WHO/UNICEF JMP WaterSanitation
- ^ EIA
- ^ Template:PDFlink