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{{Short description|A 1970's chess program}}
'''Chess''' was a pioneering [[chess engine|chess program]] from the 1970s, authored by [[Larry Atkin]] and [[David Slate]] at [[Northwestern University]]. Chess ran on [[Control Data Corporation]]'s line of [[supercomputer]]s. Work on the program began in 1968.{{r|jennings197801}} It dominated the first [[computer chess]] tournaments, such as the [[World Computer Chess Championship]] and ACM's [[North American Computer Chess Championship]]. Chess was the first published use of the [[bitboard]] data structure applied to the game of [[chess]].
'''Chess''' was a pioneering [[chess engine|chess program]] from the 1970s, written by [[Larry Atkin]], [[David Slate]] and [[Keith Gorlen]] at [[Northwestern University]]. Chess ran on [[Control Data Corporation]]'s line of [[supercomputer]]s. Work on the program began in 1968 while the authors were graduate students at the university.{{r|jennings197801}} The first competitive version was '''Chess 2.0''' which gradually evolved to '''Chess 3.6''' and was rewritten as the 4.x series. It dominated the first [[computer chess]] tournaments, such as the [[World Computer Chess Championship]] and ACM's [[North American Computer Chess Championship]]. At the ACM event, ''Chess'' won eight of the ten tournaments held from 1970 to 1979. NWU Chess adopted several innovative or neglected techniques including [[bitboard]] data structures, iterative deepening, transposition tables, and an early form of forward pruning later called futility pruning. The 4.x versions were the first programs to abandon selective search in favor of full-width fixed-depth searching.


In 1976, '''Chess 4.5''' won the Class B section of the Paul Masson tournament in Northern California. The [[ELO rating system|performance rating]] was 1950. This was the first time a computer was [[Human-computer chess matches|successful in a human tournament]].
In 1976, '''Chess 4.5''' won the Class B section of the [[Paul Masson]] American Class Championships, the first time a computer was [[Human–computer chess matches|successful in a human tournament]].<ref name="hapgood19821223_30">{{cite news | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_n1vr0_RbXoC&pg=PA827 | title=Computer chess bad-human chess worse | work=New Scientist | date=23–30 December 1982 | accessdate=22 January 2015 | author=Hapgood, Fred | pages=827–830}}</ref> The [[Elo rating system|performance rating]] was 1950.


In February 1977 '''Chess 4.6''', the only computer entry, surprised observers by winning the Minnesota Open. It achieved a [[United States Chess Federation|USCF]] rating close to or at [[Chess expert|Expert]], higher than previous programs' Class C or D, by winning five games and losing none.<ref name="wheland197810">{{cite news | url=http://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-10/1978_10_BYTE_03-10_Chess_for_the_Microcomputer#page/n167/mode/2up | title=A Computer Chess Tutorial | work=BYTE | date=October 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Wheland, Norman D. | pages=168}}</ref><ref name="douglas197901">{{cite news | url=http://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1979-01/1979_01_BYTE_04-01_Life_Algorithms#page/n111/mode/2up | title=Grandmaster Walter Browne versus Chess 4.6 | work=BYTE | date=January 1979 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Douglas, John R | pages=110}}</ref> Stenberg (rated 1969) became the second Class A player to lose to a computer in a tournament game, the first being Jola.
In February 1977, '''Chess 4.6''', the only computer entry, surprised observers by winning the 84th Minnesota Open against competitors just under [[Chess title#Master|Master]] level. It achieved a [[United States Chess Federation|USCF]] rating close to or at [[Chess expert|Expert]], higher than previous programs' Class C or D, by winning five games and losing none.<ref name="wheland197810">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-10/1978_10_BYTE_03-10_Chess_for_the_Microcomputer#page/n167/mode/2up | title=A Computer Chess Tutorial | work=BYTE | date=October 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Wheland, Norman D. | pages=168}}</ref><ref name="douglas197901">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1979-01/1979_01_BYTE_04-01_Life_Algorithms#page/n111/mode/2up | title=Grandmaster Walter Browne versus Chess 4.6 | work=BYTE | date=January 1979 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Douglas, John R | pages=110}}</ref>{{r|hapgood19821223_30}} Stenberg (rated 1969) became the second Class A player to lose to a computer in a tournament game, the first being Jola.


Because of its Minnesota victory, grandmaster [[Walter Browne]] invited Chess 4.6 on a [[CDC Cyber|CDC Cyber 176]] to his [[simultaneous chess]] exhibition; to Browne and others' surprise, Chess 4.6 defeated the [[U.S. Chess Championship|United States chess champion]].{{r|douglas197901}} Also in 1977, Chess 4.6 won the second World Computer Chess Championship in Toronto, ahead of 15 other programs including [[Kaissa|KAISSA]]; Chess 4 had finished in second place to KAISSA at the first tournament in 1974. The favorite to win the tournament, like all but one other entry Chess 4.6 ran on a computer located away from the tournament; despite losing 90 minutes to hardware failure at the start of its first match the program rapidly defeated its opponent in 27 moves, earlier than any other first-round match. Chess 4.6 was capable of defeating 99.5% of [[United States Chess Federation]]-rated players under tournament conditions, and was stronger in [[blitz chess]].<ref name="jennings197801">{{cite news | url=http://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-01/1978_01_BYTE_03-01_The_Brains_of_Men_and_Machines#page/n107/mode/2up | title=The Second World Computer Chess Championships | work=BYTE | date=January 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Jennings, Peter | pages=108}}</ref>
Because of its Minnesota victory, grandmaster [[Walter Browne]] invited Chess 4.6 on a [[CDC Cyber|CDC Cyber 176]] to his [[simultaneous chess]] exhibition; to Browne and others' surprise, Chess 4.6 defeated the [[U.S. Chess Championship|United States chess champion]].{{r|douglas197901}} Also in 1977, Chess 4.6 won the second World Computer Chess Championship in Toronto, ahead of 15 other programs including [[Kaissa|KAISSA]]; Chess 4 had finished in second place to KAISSA at the first tournament in 1974. The favorite to win the tournament, like all but one other entry Chess 4.6 ran on a computer located away from the tournament; despite losing 90 minutes to hardware failure at the start of its first match the program rapidly defeated its opponent in 27 moves, earlier than any other first-round match. Chess 4.6 was capable of defeating 99.5% of [[United States Chess Federation]]-rated players under tournament conditions, and was stronger in [[blitz chess]].<ref name="jennings197801">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-01/1978_01_BYTE_03-01_The_Brains_of_Men_and_Machines#page/n107/mode/2up | title=The Second World Computer Chess Championships | work=BYTE | date=January 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Jennings, Peter | author-link=Peter R Jennings | pages=108}}</ref>


In 1978 Atkin and Peter W. Frey published in ''[[BYTE]]'' the [[Pascal language|Pascal]] source for ''Chess 0.5'', a chess engine suitable for microcomputers.<ref name="byte197811">{{cite news | url=http://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-11/1978_11_BYTE_03-11_The_Sky_is_the_Limit#page/n163/mode/2up | title=Creating a Chess Player Part 2: Chess 0.5 | work=BYTE | date=November 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Frey, Peter W.; Atkin, Larry R. | pages=162}}</ref><ref name="byte197812">{{cite news | url=http://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-12/1978_12_BYTE_03-12_Life#page/n141/mode/2up | title=Creating a Chess Player Part 3: Chess 0.5 (continued) | work=BYTE | date=December 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Atkin, Larry R; Frey, Peter W. | pages=140}}</ref> That year the improved '''Chess 4.7'''—which had by now achieved a 2030 rating after 31 tournament games<ref name="douglas197812"/>—played against [[David Levy (chess player)|David Levy]] who, in 1968 had [[Computer chess bet|wagered that he would not be beaten by a computer within ten years]]. Whereas Chess 4.7 had beaten Levy under blitz conditions, the bet involved forty moves over a two-hour period, the computer's choices being relayed by telephone from Minnesota to the board.<ref>Mather, Ian, ''The great computer chess bet'', [[The Observer]] 20 August 1978</ref> Levy won the bet, defeating the Chess 4.7 in a six-game match by a score of 4.5-1.5,<ref>David Levy, "Man Beats Machine!", ''[[Chess Life & Review]]'', November 1978, pp. 600-03, at pp. 601-03.</ref><ref>David Levy and Monroe Newborn, ''More Chess and Computers: The [[Microcomputer]] Revolution, The Challenge Match'', Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, pp. 10-30. ISBN 0-914894-07-2.</ref> The computer scored a [[draw (chess)|draw]] in game two after getting a completely winning position but being outplayed by Levy in the [[chess endgame|endgame]], and a win in game four—the first computer victory against a human master<ref name="douglas197812">{{cite news | url=http://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-12/1978_12_BYTE_03-12_Life#page/n85/mode/2up | title=Chess 4.7 versus David Levy | work=BYTE | date=December 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Douglas, J R | pages=84}}</ref>—when Levy essayed the very sharp, dubious [[Latvian Gambit]].<ref>David Levy, "Man Beats Machine!", ''[[Chess Life & Review]]'', November 1978, pp. 600-03, at pp. 602-03.</ref> Levy wrote, "I had proved that my 1968 assessment had been correct, but on the other hand my opponent in this match was very, very much stronger than I had thought possible when I started the bet."<ref name="Monroe Newborn 1980, p. 30">David Levy and Monroe Newborn, ''More Chess and Computers: The [[Microcomputer]] Revolution, The Challenge Match'', Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, p. 30. ISBN 0-914894-07-2.</ref> He observed that, "Now nothing would surprise me (very much)."<ref>David Levy and Monroe Newborn, ''More Chess and Computers: The [[Microcomputer]] Revolution, The Challenge Match'', Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, Preface. ISBN 0-914894-07-2.</ref>
In 1978, the improved '''Chess 4.7'''—which had by now achieved a 2030 rating after 31 tournament games<ref name="douglas197812"/>—played against [[David Levy (chess player)|David Levy]] who, in 1968 had [[Computer chess bet|wagered that he would not be beaten by a computer within ten years]]. Whereas Chess 4.7 had beaten Levy under blitz conditions, the bet involved forty moves over a two-hour period, the computer's choices being relayed by telephone from Minnesota to the board.<ref>Mather, Ian, ''The great computer chess bet'', [[The Observer]] 20 August 1978</ref> Levy won the bet convincingly, defeating Chess 4.7 in a six-game match by a score of 4.5-1.5,<ref>David Levy, "Man Beats Machine!", ''[[Chess Life & Review]]'', November 1978, pp. 600-03, at pp. 601-03.</ref><ref>David Levy and Monroe Newborn, ''More Chess and Computers: The [[Microcomputer]] Revolution, The Challenge Match'', Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, pp. 10-30. {{ISBN|0-914894-07-2}}.</ref> The computer scored a [[draw (chess)|draw]] in game two after getting a completely winning position but being outplayed by Levy in the [[chess endgame|endgame]], and a win in game four—the first computer victory against a human master<ref name="douglas197812">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-12/1978_12_BYTE_03-12_Life#page/n85/mode/2up | title=Chess 4.7 versus David Levy | work=BYTE | date=December 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 | author=Douglas, J R | pages=84}}</ref>—when Levy essayed the very sharp, dubious [[Latvian Gambit]].<ref>David Levy, "Man Beats Machine!", ''[[Chess Life & Review]]'', November 1978, pp. 600-03, at pp. 602-03.</ref> Levy wrote, "I had proved that my 1968 assessment had been correct, but on the other hand my opponent in this match was very, very much stronger than I had thought possible when I started the bet."<ref name="Monroe Newborn 1980, p. 30">David Levy and Monroe Newborn, ''More Chess and Computers: The [[Microcomputer]] Revolution, The Challenge Match'', Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, p. 30. {{ISBN|0-914894-07-2}}.</ref> He observed that, "Now nothing would surprise me (very much)."<ref>David Levy and Monroe Newborn, ''More Chess and Computers: The [[Microcomputer]] Revolution, The Challenge Match'', Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, Preface. {{ISBN|0-914894-07-2}}.</ref> [[International Master]] [[Edward Lasker]] stated in 1978, "My contention that computers cannot play like a master, I retract. They play absolutely alarmingly. I know, because I have lost games to 4.7."<ref name="mj19781210">{{cite news | url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=xFoaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nSkEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1667%2C6712093 | title=Tiny Computer Sends Chess Foe Down Tube | work=Milwaukee Journal | date=1978-12-10 | agency=Washington Post Service | accessdate=21 January 2015 | pages=Discover 1}}</ref>

The last revision of the program was '''Chess 4.9''' in 1979. It won the 10th ACM North American Computer Chess Championship tournament in Detroit and played at the expert level (2100). David Slate, with William Blanchard of Vogelback Computing Center at Northwestern University, later wrote a new program in Fortran, originally dubbed "Chess 5.0", but later renamed '''Nuchess'''. It competed from 1980 to 1984 but was never the dominating force of its predecessor. Its best competitive result was a second place finish in the 1981 North American Computer Chess Championship. During the 1980's the software paradigm of chess dominance gave way to specialized chess hardware machines like Belle, HiTech, and Chiptest, and the Northwestern series of programs was retired from competition after 1984.

In 1978 and 1979, Atkin and Peter W. Frey published in ''[[BYTE]]'' a series on computer chess programming, including the [[Pascal language|Pascal]] source for ''Chess 0.5'', a chess engine suitable for microcomputers.<ref name="byte197810">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-10/1978_10_BYTE_03-10_Chess_for_the_Microcomputer#page/n181/mode/2up | title=Creating a Chess Player / An Essay on Human and Computer Chess Skill | work=BYTE | date=October 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 |author1=Frey, Peter W |author2=Atkin, Larry R | pages=182}}</ref><ref name="byte197811">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-11/1978_11_BYTE_03-11_The_Sky_is_the_Limit#page/n163/mode/2up | title=Creating a Chess Player Part 2: Chess 0.5 | work=BYTE | date=November 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 |author1=Frey, Peter W |author2=Atkin, Larry R | pages=162}}</ref><ref name="byte197812">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1978-12/1978_12_BYTE_03-12_Life#page/n141/mode/2up | title=Creating a Chess Player Part 3: Chess 0.5 (continued) | work=BYTE | date=December 1978 | accessdate=17 October 2013 |author1=Atkin, Larry R |author2=Frey, Peter W | pages=140}}</ref><ref name="byte197901">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1979-01/1979_01_BYTE_04-01_Life_Algorithms#page/n127/mode/2up | title=Creating a Chess Player / Part 4: Strategy in Computer Chess | work=BYTE | date=January 1979 | accessdate=17 October 2013 |author1=Frey, Peter W |author2=Atkin, Larry R | pages=120}}</ref>
Atkin, Slate, and Frey later wrote microcomputer chess, checkers, and Reversi programs for '''Odesta'''. Advertisements cited their Northwestern affiliation and authorship of Chess 4.7, "World Computer Chess Champion, 1977-1980".<ref name="ad198212">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1982-12/1982_12_BYTE_07-12_Game_Plan_1982#page/n99/mode/2up | title=Explore the Frontiers of Intelligence | work=BYTE | date=December 1982 | accessdate=6 February 2015 | pages=99 | type=advertisement}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

⚫
* "Computer Chess Compendium", L. Atkin & D. Slate, Springer-Verlag, 1988, pp.&nbsp;80–103
* "Chess Skill in Man and Machine" Peter W. Frey, 1977, pp.&nbsp;82–118 - devotes a chapter to the internals of Chess 4.5
* "Chess Skill in Man and Machine", ''Chess 4.5 - The Northwestern University Chess Program'', L. Atkin & D. Slate, pp.&nbsp;82–118, Springer-Verlag, 1977 - devotes a chapter to the history and internals of Chess 4.5
⚫
**reprinted in "Computer Chess Compendium", ''Chess 4.5 - The Northwestern University Chess Program'', L. Atkin & D. Slate, pp.&nbsp;80–103, Springer-Verlag, 1988,
⚫
* Source code for Chess 4.6 available at [http://ClassicChess.Googlepages.com/Chess.htm]

==External links==
⚫
* Source code for Chess 4.6 available at [https://web.archive.org/web/20071107085934/http://classicchess.googlepages.com/Chess.htm]
* Playable version of Chess 4.9 available (login as guest, then type 'chess') at [http://www.nostalgiccomputing.org]


[[Category:Chess engines]]
[[Category:Chess software]]
[[Category:History of chess]]
[[Category:History of chess]]
[[Category:Northwestern University]]
[[Category:Northwestern University]]

Revision as of 15:51, 8 May 2024

Chess was a pioneering chess program from the 1970s, written by Larry Atkin, David Slate and Keith Gorlen at Northwestern University. Chess ran on Control Data Corporation's line of supercomputers. Work on the program began in 1968 while the authors were graduate students at the university.[1] The first competitive version was Chess 2.0 which gradually evolved to Chess 3.6 and was rewritten as the 4.x series. It dominated the first computer chess tournaments, such as the World Computer Chess Championship and ACM's North American Computer Chess Championship. At the ACM event, Chess won eight of the ten tournaments held from 1970 to 1979. NWU Chess adopted several innovative or neglected techniques including bitboard data structures, iterative deepening, transposition tables, and an early form of forward pruning later called futility pruning. The 4.x versions were the first programs to abandon selective search in favor of full-width fixed-depth searching.

In 1976, Chess 4.5 won the Class B section of the Paul Masson American Class Championships, the first time a computer was successful in a human tournament.[2] The performance rating was 1950.

In February 1977, Chess 4.6, the only computer entry, surprised observers by winning the 84th Minnesota Open against competitors just under Master level. It achieved a USCF rating close to or at Expert, higher than previous programs' Class C or D, by winning five games and losing none.[3][4][2] Stenberg (rated 1969) became the second Class A player to lose to a computer in a tournament game, the first being Jola.

Because of its Minnesota victory, grandmaster Walter Browne invited Chess 4.6 on a CDC Cyber 176 to his simultaneous chess exhibition; to Browne and others' surprise, Chess 4.6 defeated the United States chess champion.[4] Also in 1977, Chess 4.6 won the second World Computer Chess Championship in Toronto, ahead of 15 other programs including KAISSA; Chess 4 had finished in second place to KAISSA at the first tournament in 1974. The favorite to win the tournament, like all but one other entry Chess 4.6 ran on a computer located away from the tournament; despite losing 90 minutes to hardware failure at the start of its first match the program rapidly defeated its opponent in 27 moves, earlier than any other first-round match. Chess 4.6 was capable of defeating 99.5% of United States Chess Federation-rated players under tournament conditions, and was stronger in blitz chess.[1]

In 1978, the improved Chess 4.7—which had by now achieved a 2030 rating after 31 tournament games[5]—played against David Levy who, in 1968 had wagered that he would not be beaten by a computer within ten years. Whereas Chess 4.7 had beaten Levy under blitz conditions, the bet involved forty moves over a two-hour period, the computer's choices being relayed by telephone from Minnesota to the board.[6] Levy won the bet convincingly, defeating Chess 4.7 in a six-game match by a score of 4.5-1.5,[7][8] The computer scored a draw in game two after getting a completely winning position but being outplayed by Levy in the endgame, and a win in game four—the first computer victory against a human master[5]—when Levy essayed the very sharp, dubious Latvian Gambit.[9] Levy wrote, "I had proved that my 1968 assessment had been correct, but on the other hand my opponent in this match was very, very much stronger than I had thought possible when I started the bet."[10] He observed that, "Now nothing would surprise me (very much)."[11] International Master Edward Lasker stated in 1978, "My contention that computers cannot play like a master, I retract. They play absolutely alarmingly. I know, because I have lost games to 4.7."[12]

The last revision of the program was Chess 4.9 in 1979. It won the 10th ACM North American Computer Chess Championship tournament in Detroit and played at the expert level (2100). David Slate, with William Blanchard of Vogelback Computing Center at Northwestern University, later wrote a new program in Fortran, originally dubbed "Chess 5.0", but later renamed Nuchess. It competed from 1980 to 1984 but was never the dominating force of its predecessor. Its best competitive result was a second place finish in the 1981 North American Computer Chess Championship. During the 1980's the software paradigm of chess dominance gave way to specialized chess hardware machines like Belle, HiTech, and Chiptest, and the Northwestern series of programs was retired from competition after 1984.

In 1978 and 1979, Atkin and Peter W. Frey published in BYTE a series on computer chess programming, including the Pascal source for Chess 0.5, a chess engine suitable for microcomputers.[13][14][15][16] Atkin, Slate, and Frey later wrote microcomputer chess, checkers, and Reversi programs for Odesta. Advertisements cited their Northwestern affiliation and authorship of Chess 4.7, "World Computer Chess Champion, 1977-1980".[17]

References

  1. ^ a b Jennings, Peter (January 1978). "The Second World Computer Chess Championships". BYTE. p. 108. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  2. ^ a b Hapgood, Fred (23–30 December 1982). "Computer chess bad-human chess worse". New Scientist. pp. 827–830. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
  3. ^ Wheland, Norman D. (October 1978). "A Computer Chess Tutorial". BYTE. p. 168. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  4. ^ a b Douglas, John R (January 1979). "Grandmaster Walter Browne versus Chess 4.6". BYTE. p. 110. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  5. ^ a b Douglas, J R (December 1978). "Chess 4.7 versus David Levy". BYTE. p. 84. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  6. ^ Mather, Ian, The great computer chess bet, The Observer 20 August 1978
  7. ^ David Levy, "Man Beats Machine!", Chess Life & Review, November 1978, pp. 600-03, at pp. 601-03.
  8. ^ David Levy and Monroe Newborn, More Chess and Computers: The Microcomputer Revolution, The Challenge Match, Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, pp. 10-30. ISBN 0-914894-07-2.
  9. ^ David Levy, "Man Beats Machine!", Chess Life & Review, November 1978, pp. 600-03, at pp. 602-03.
  10. ^ David Levy and Monroe Newborn, More Chess and Computers: The Microcomputer Revolution, The Challenge Match, Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, p. 30. ISBN 0-914894-07-2.
  11. ^ David Levy and Monroe Newborn, More Chess and Computers: The Microcomputer Revolution, The Challenge Match, Computer Science Press, Potomac, Maryland, and Batsford, London, 1980, Preface. ISBN 0-914894-07-2.
  12. ^ "Tiny Computer Sends Chess Foe Down Tube". Milwaukee Journal. Washington Post Service. 1978-12-10. pp. Discover 1. Retrieved 21 January 2015.
  13. ^ Frey, Peter W; Atkin, Larry R (October 1978). "Creating a Chess Player / An Essay on Human and Computer Chess Skill". BYTE. p. 182. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  14. ^ Frey, Peter W; Atkin, Larry R (November 1978). "Creating a Chess Player Part 2: Chess 0.5". BYTE. p. 162. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  15. ^ Atkin, Larry R; Frey, Peter W (December 1978). "Creating a Chess Player Part 3: Chess 0.5 (continued)". BYTE. p. 140. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  16. ^ Frey, Peter W; Atkin, Larry R (January 1979). "Creating a Chess Player / Part 4: Strategy in Computer Chess". BYTE. p. 120. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  17. ^ "Explore the Frontiers of Intelligence". BYTE (advertisement). December 1982. p. 99. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
  • "Chess Skill in Man and Machine", Chess 4.5 - The Northwestern University Chess Program, L. Atkin & D. Slate, pp. 82–118, Springer-Verlag, 1977 - devotes a chapter to the history and internals of Chess 4.5
    • reprinted in "Computer Chess Compendium", Chess 4.5 - The Northwestern University Chess Program, L. Atkin & D. Slate, pp. 80–103, Springer-Verlag, 1988,

External links

  • Source code for Chess 4.6 available at [1]
  • Playable version of Chess 4.9 available (login as guest, then type 'chess') at [2]
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