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'''Livingston Tallmadge Merchant''' (1903 - 1976) was an American official and diplomat. He twice served as [[United States Ambassador to Canada]] and was [[Under Secretary for Political Affairs]] from 1959 to 1961.
{{otheruses1|the theological or philosophical afterlife}}
[[Image:Hortus Deliciarum - Hell.jpg|thumb|180px|Medieval illustration of Hell in the [[Hortus deliciarum]] manuscript of [[Herrad of Landsberg]] (about 1180)]]


Merchant was educated at the [[Hotchkiss School]] and [[Princeton University|Princeton]], where he was a member of the [[University Cottage Club]]. He joined Scudder Stevens and Clark, an investment counselling firm. He became a general partner in 1930.<ref>*{{cite news
'''Hell''', according to many [[religious beliefs]], is a location in the [[afterlife]], which may be described as a place of suffering. Hell is usually depicted as underground. Within [[Islam]], Hell is traditionally depicted as fiery and painful, inflicting guilt and suffering.<ref> Numerous verses in the Qu'ran and New Testament.</ref> Some other traditions, however, portray Hell as cold and gloomy. Existence after life is not concrete in [[Judaism]] and may be portrayed as a state of neutrality, an eternal nothingness ("[[sheol]]", often translated as Hell), simply non-life.
|title=Diplomat Livingston Merchant Dies
|date=May 17th, 1976
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
}}</ref>


In early 1950s, he served as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (under [[Dean Rusk]] who served as Assistant Secretary for Far Eastern Affairs and [[Dean Acheson]], then Secretary of State) in the Truman administration.<ref>*{{cite
Some theologies of Hell offer graphic and gruesome detail (for example, Islamic [[Jahannam]]). Religions with a linear divine history often depict Hell as endless (for example, see [[Hell in Christian beliefs]]). Religions with a [[reincarnation|cyclic history]] often depict Hell as an intermediary period between [[incarnations]] (for example, see Chinese [[Di Yu]]). Punishment in Hell typically corresponds to [[sins]] committed in life. Sometimes these distinctions are specific, with damned souls suffering for each wrong committed (see for example Plato's [[myth of Er]] or Dante's [[The Divine Comedy]]), and sometimes they are general, with sinners being relegated to one or more chamber of Hell or level of suffering (for example, [[Augustine of Hippo]] asserting that unbaptized infants, whom he believed to be deprived of Heaven, suffer less in Hell than unbaptized adults). In [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]], however, [[faith]] and [[repentance]] play a larger role than actions in determining a soul's afterlife destiny.
|author=Department of State
|title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, Volume VI, Asia and the Pacific (two parts)
|date= 1977
|publisher=Government Printing Office
}}</ref>


In 1964 he co-authored the ''[[The Merchant-Heeney Report|Merchant-Heeney Report]]'' which examined bilateral relations between Canada and the United States. He later served as U.S. executive director of the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] between 1965 and 1968.<ref>*{{cite web
Despite the common depictions of Hell as a fire, [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy|Inferno]]'' portrays the innermost (9th) circle of Hell as a frozen lake of blood and guilt.<ref>{{cite book
|url=http://www.inthefirstperson.com/firp/firp.detail.documents.aspx?documentcode=OHI0032181-14268
|last=Alighieri
|title=Livingston Merchant: Oral history
|first=Dante
|authorlink=Dante Alighieri
|others=trans. [[John Ciardi]]
|title= [[Divine Comedy|Inferno]]
|origyear= c. 1315
|edition=2
|year=2001 (orig. trans. 1977)
|month=June
|publisher=Penguin
|location=[[New York City|New York]]
|language=
|chapter=Cantos XXXI-XXXIV
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
Hell is often portrayed as populated with [[demon]]s, who torment the damned. Many are ruled by a death god, such as [[Nergal]], the Hindu [[Yama]], or concepts of the Christian [[Satan]]. In contrast to Hell, other general types of afterlives are abodes of the dead and paradises. Abodes of the dead are neutral places for all the dead (for example, see [[sheol]]), rather than prisons of punishment for sinners. A paradise is a happy afterlife for some or all the dead (for example, see [[heaven]]). Modern understandings of Hell often depict it abstractly, as a state of loss rather than as fiery torture literally under the ground.

==Etymology==
===Germanic paganism and Christian vocabulary===
[[Image:Hel (1889) by Johannes Gehrts.jpg|thumb|"Hel" (1889) by Johannes Gehrts.]]
The modern English word ''Hell'' is derived from Old English ''hel'', ''helle'' (about 725 AD to refer to a nether world of the dead) reaching into the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|Anglo-Saxon pagan period]], and ultimately from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*halja'', meaning "one who covers up or hides something".<ref name=BARNHART348>[[Robert Barnhart|Barnhart, Robert K.]] (1995) ''The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology'', page 348. [[Harper Collins]] ISBN 0062700847</ref> The word has cognates in related [[Germanic languages]] such as [[Old Frisian]] ''helle'', ''hille'', [[Old Saxon]] ''hellja'', [[Middle Dutch]] ''helle'' (modern Dutch ''hel''), [[Old High German]] ''helle'' (Modern German ''[[Holle (goddess)|Hölle]]''), and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''halja''.<ref name=BARNHART348/> Subsequently, the word was used to transfer a pagan concept to Christian theology and its vocabulary<ref name=BARNHART348/> (however, for the Judeo-Christian origin of the concept see [[Gehenna]]).

The English word ''hell'' has been theorized as being derived from Old Norse ''Hel'', meaning satan's uterus giving birth to a wide-mouthed, three-headed goose.<ref name=BARNHART348/> Amongst other sources, the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'', compiled from earlier traditional sources in the 13th century, and the ''[[Prose Edda]]'', written in the 13th century by [[Snorri Sturluson]], provide information regarding the beliefs of the [[Norse paganism|Norse pagans]], including a being named [[Hel (being)|Hel]], who is described as ruling over an underworld location of the [[Hel (location)|same name]].

===Profanity===
The word "Hell" used away from its religious context was long considered to be [[profanity]], particularly in North America. Although its use was commonplace in everyday speech and on television by the 1970s, many people in the US still consider it somewhat rude or inappropriate language, particularly involving children.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04036/269490.stm|title=Girl suspended for saying h-e-double-hockey-sticks|publisher=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|date=[[2004-02-05]]}}</ref>
Many, particularly among religious circles and in certain sensitive <!-- ???--> environments, still avoid casual usage of the word. In [[British English]] and some parts of North America, the word has fallen into common use and is not considered profane; often considered to be a safer and less offensive alternative to swearing, as in the phrase, "Go to Hell!" or "Bloody Hell!"{{Fact|date=February 2008}}.

==Religious literature and beliefs==
[[Image:Dore woodcut Divine Comedy 01.jpg|thumb|A vision of Hell from [[Dante]]’s ''[[Divine Comedy]]''. Illustration by [[Gustave Doré]].]]
Hell appears in several [[mythology|mythologies]] and [[religion]]s. It is commonly inhabited by [[demon]]s and the [[soul]]s of dead people.
Hell is often depicted in art and literature, perhaps most famously in [[Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy]].
===Bahá'í Faith===
The [[Bahá'í Faith]] regards the conventional description of Hell (and heaven) as a specific place as symbolic.<ref name="lafd">{{cite book | title = Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions | last = Masumian | first = Farnaz | publisher = Oneworld Publications | location = Oxford | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 1-85168-074-8}}</ref> Instead the [[Bahá'í literature|Bahá'í writings]] describe Hell as a "spiritual condition" where remoteness from God is defined as Hell; conversely [[heaven]] is seen as a state of closeness to God.<ref name="lafd" /> [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, has stated that the nature of the life of the soul in the afterlife is beyond comprehension in the physical plane,<ref name="lafd" /> but has stated that the soul will retain its consciousness and individuality and remember its physical life; the soul will be able to recognize other souls and communicate with them.<ref name="lafd" />

Bahá'u'lláh likened death to the process of birth. He explains: "The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the [[womb]] of its mother."<ref name="gwb">{{cite book |author=Bahá'u'lláh |authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh |year=1976 |title=Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id=ISBN 0-87743-187-6 | pages = pp. 157 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/GWB/gwb-81.html#pg157}}</ref> The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Bahá'í view of earthly existence: just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides for the development of the individual soul. Accordingly, Bahá'ís view life as a preparatory stage, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life.<ref name="lafd" /> The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the current [[Manifestations of God]], which Bahá'ís believe is currently Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh wrote, "Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved,"<ref name="gwb2">{{cite book |author=Bahá'u'lláh |authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh |year=1976 |title=Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |id=ISBN 0-87743-187-6 | pages = pp. 162 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/GWB/gwb-82.html#gr7}}</ref>

The Bahá'í teachings state that there exists a hierarchy of souls in the afterlife, where the merits of each soul determines their place in the hierarchy, and that souls lower in the hierarchy cannot completely understand the station of those above.<ref name="lafd" /> Each soul can continue to progress in the afterlife, but the soul's development is not dependent on its own conscious efforts, but instead on the grace of God, the prayers of others, and good deeds performed by others on Earth in the name of the person.<ref name="lafd" />

===Buddhism===
Buddhism teaches that there are five (sometimes six) realms of rebirth, which can then be further subdivided into degrees of agony or pleasure. Of these realms, the hell realms, or [[Naraka_(Buddhism)|Naraka]], is the lowest realm of rebirth. Of the hell realms, the worst is [[Avici|Avīci]] or "endless suffering". The Buddha's disciple, [[Devadatta]], who tried to kill the Buddha on three occasions, as well as create a schism in the monastic order, is said to have been reborn in the Avici Hell.

However, like all realms of rebirth, rebirth in the Hell realms is not permanent, though suffering can persist for eons before being reborn again. In the [[Lotus Sutra]], the Buddha teaches that eventually even Devadatta will become a Buddha himself, emphasizing the temporary nature of the Hell realms. Thus, Buddhism teaches to escape the endless migration of rebirths (both positive and negative) through the attainment of [[Nirvana]].

The Bodhisattva [[Ksitigarbha]], according to the Ksitigarbha Sutra, made a great vow as a young girl to not reach Enlightenment until all beings were liberated from the Hell Realms or other unwholesome rebirths. In popular literature, Ksitigarbha travels to the Hell realms to teach and relieve beings of their suffering.

===Chinese folks beliefs===
{{main|Di Yu}}
[[Image:ROM-ChineseGallery-DemonSculpture.png|thumb|right|A Chinese glazed earthenware sculpture of "Hell's torturer," 16th century, [[Ming Dynasty]]]]
In Chinese mythology, the name of ''Hell'' does not carry a negative connotation. The Hell they refer to is ''[[Diyu|Di Yu]]''. Diyu is a maze of underground levels and chambers where souls are taken to atone for their earthly sins. The popular story is that the word ''Hell'' was introduced to China by [[Christian]] [[missionaries]], who preached that all non-Christian Chinese people would "go to Hell" when they die. As such, it was believed that the word "Hell" was the proper English term for the Chinese afterlife, and hence the word was adopted. The Chinese view Hell as similar to a present day passport or immigration control station. In a Chinese funeral, they burn many Hell Bank Notes for the dead. With this Hell money, the dead person can bribe the ruler of Hell, and spend the rest of the money either in Hell or in Heaven. There is a belief that once the dead person runs out of Hell money, and if he does not receive more, he will be eternally poor.

Buddhist and Indian influences also play a role in Chinese views on Hell. The king of the underworld, [[Enma]], bears strong resemblance to the Hindu/Buddhist figure [[Yama]], for example.

===Christianity===
{{main|Hell in Christian beliefs}}

The Christian doctrine of hell derives from the teaching of the [[New Testament]], where hell is typically described using the Greek words ''[[Tartarus]]'' or ''[[Hades]]'' or the Hebrew word ''[[Gehenna]]''. Hell is taught as the final destiny of those who have not accepted Jesus Christ as their savior after they have passed through the great white throne of judgment <ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Revelation+20:11-15 Revelation 20:11]</ref> <ref>[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans+6:23 Romans 6:23]</ref>, where they will be punished for [[sin]] and permanently separated from God after the [[general resurrection]] and [[last judgment]]. However, many Christian theologians of the early Church and some of the modern Church subscribe to the doctrines of [[conditional immortality]] ("[[annihilationism]]") or [[universal reconciliation]]. <ref>''New Bible Dictionary'', "Hell", InterVarsity Press, 1996.</ref><ref>''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology'', "Hell", InterVarsity Press, 2000.</ref><ref>[[Evangelical Alliance]] Commission on Truth and Unity Among Evangelicals, ''The Nature of Hell'', Paternoster, 2000.</ref>

===Greek mythology===
{{main|Tartarus}}
In classic Greek mythology, below Heaven, Earth, and Pontus is Tartarus, or Tartaros (Greek Τάρταρος, deep place). It is either a deep, gloomy place, a pit or abyss used as a dungeon of torment and suffering that resides within Hades (the entire underworld) with Tartarus being the hellish component. In the Gorgias, Plato (c. 400 BC) wrote that souls were judged after death and those who received punishment were sent to Tartarus. As a place of punishment, it can be considered a hell. The classic Hades, on the other hand, is more similar to Old Testament Sheol.

===Hinduism===
{{main|Naraka}}
[[Image:Yama's Court and Hell.jpg|thumb|Yama's Court and Hell. The Blue figure is [[Yamaraj]] (The Hindu god of death) with his consort [[Yami]] and [[Chitragupta]] <br /> 17th century Painting from Government Museum, [[Chennai]].]]
In [[Hinduism]], there are different opinions from various schools of thought on Hell which is called [[Naraka]] (in Sanskrit: नर्क). For some it is metaphorical, or a lower spiritual plane (called [[Naraka]] [[Loka]]) where the spirit is judged, or partial fruits of [[karma]] affected in a next life. In [[Mahabharata]] there is a mention of the [[Pandavas]] going to Heaven and the [[Kauravas]] going to Hell. Hells are also described in various [[Purana]]s and other scriptures. Garuda Purana gives a detailed account of Hell, its features and enlists amount of punishment for most of the crimes like modern day penal code.

It is believed that people who commit sins go to Hell and have to go through punishments in accordance with the sins they committed. The god [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yamaraj]], who is also the god of death, presides over Hell. Detailed accounts of all the sins committed by an individual are kept by [[Chitragupta]], who is the record keeper in Yama's court. Chitragupta reads out the sins committed and Yama orders appropriate punishments to be given to individuals. These punishments include dipping in boiling oil, burning in fire, torture using various weapons, etc. in various Hells. Individuals who finish their quota of the punishments are reborn in accordance with their balance of [[karma]]. All created beings are imperfect and thus have at least one sin to their record; but if one has generally led a pious life, one ascends to [[Paradise]], or [[Swarga]] after a brief period of expiation in Hell.

===Islam===
{{main|Jahannam}}
[[Muslims]] believe in ''[[jahannam]]'' (in [[Arabic Language|Arabic]]: جهنم) (which is related to the Hebrew word ''gehennim'' and resembles the versions of Hell in [[Christianity]]). In the [[Qur'an]], the holy book of [[Islam]], there are literal descriptions of the condemned in a fiery Hell, as contrasted to the garden-like [[Paradise]] (''[[jannah]]'') enjoyed by righteous believers.

In addition, Heaven and Hell are split into many different levels depending on the actions perpetrated in life, where punishment is given depending on the level of evil done in life, and good is separated into other levels depending on how well one followed God while alive. The gate of Hell is guarded by [[Maalik]] who is the leader of the angels assigned as the guards of hell also known as ''Zabaaniyah''. The [[Quran]] states that the fuel of Hellfire is rocks/stones ([[cult image|idols]]) and human beings.

Although generally Hell is often portrayed as a hot steaming and tormenting place for sinners, there is one Hell pit which is characterized differently from the other Hell in Islamic tradition. ''Zamhareer'' is seen as the coldest and the most freezing Hell of all; yet its coldness is not seen as a pleasure or a relief to the sinners who committed crimes against God. The state of the Hell of Zamhareer is a suffering of extreme coldness, of [[blizzard]]s, ice, and snow which no one on this earth can bear. The lowest pit of all existing Hells is the Hawiyah which is meant for the hypocrites and two-faced people who claimed to believe in Allah and His messenger by the tongue but denounced both in their hearts. [[Hypocrisy]] is considered to be the most dangerous sin of all (despite the fact that [[Shirk]] is the greatest sin viewed by Allah). According to the Qur'an, all non-believers who have received and rejected Islamic teachings will go to Hell.

===Judaism===
Daniel 12:2 proclaims "And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, Some to everlasting life, Some to shame and everlasting contempt."
[[Judaism]] does not have a specific doctrine about the afterlife, but it does have a mystical/Orthodox tradition of describing [[Gehenna]]. Gehenna is not Hell, but rather a sort of [[Purgatory]] where one is judged based on his or her life's deeds, or rather, where one becomes fully aware of one's own shortcomings and negative actions during one's life. The [[Kabbalah]] describes it as a "waiting room" (commonly translated as an "entry way") for all souls (not just the wicked). The overwhelming majority of rabbinic thought maintains that people are not in [[Gehenna]] forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be 11 months, however there has been the occasional noted exception. Some consider it a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the world to come)|Olam Habah]] (''heb.'' עולם הבא; ''lit.'' "The world to come", often viewed as analogous to [[Heaven]]). This is also mentioned in the [[Kabbalah]], where the soul is described as breaking, like the flame of a candle lighting another: the part of the soul that ascends being pure and the "unfinished" piece being reborn.

According to Jewish teachings, hell is not entirely physical; rather, it can be compared to a very intense feeling of shame. People are ashamed of their misdeeds and this constitutes suffering which makes up for the bad deeds. When one has so deviated from the will of [[God]], one is said to be in [[gehinom]]. This is not meant to refer to some point in the future, but to the very present moment. The gates of [[teshuva]] (return) are said to be always open, and so one can align his will with that of God at any moment. Being out of alignment with God's will is itself a punishment according to the [[Torah]]. In addition, Subbotniks and Messianic Judaism believe in Gehenna, but Samaritans probably believe in a separation of the wicked in a shadowy existence, Sheol, and the righteous in heaven.

===Mayan mythology===
In [[Maya mythology]] ,''[[Xibalba|Xibalbá]]'' is the dangerous [[underworld]] of nine levels ruled by the demons ''[[Vucub Caquix]]'' and ''[[Hun Came]]''. The road into and out of it is said to be steep, thorny and very forbidding. ''[[Metnal]]'' is the lowest and most horrible of the nine Hells of the [[underworld]],it is ruled by ''[[Ah Puch]]''. Ritual healers would intone healing prayers banishing diseases to ''Metnal''. Much of the [[Popol Vuh]] describes the adventures of the [[Maya Hero Twins]] in their cunning struggle with the evil lords of ''Xibalbá''.

===Taoism===
Ancient [[Taoism]] had no concept of Hell, as morality was seen to be a man-made distinction and there was no concept of an immaterial soul. In its home country [[China]], where Taoism adopted tenets of other religions, popular belief endows Taoist Hell with many deities and spirits who punish sin in a variety of horrible ways. This is also considered Karma for Taoism.

===Zoroastrianism===
[[Zoroastrianism]] has historically suggested several possible fates for the wicked, including annihilation, purgation in molten metal, and eternal punishment, all of which have standing in Zoroaster's writings. Zoroastrian eschatology includes the belief that wicked souls will remain in hell until, following the arrival of three saviors at thousand-year intervals, [[Ahura Mazda]] reconciles the world, destroying evil and resurrecting tormented souls to perfection.<ref>Chapter 75, {{cite web | url=http://www.ubfellowship.org/archive/readers/601_zoroastrianism.htm | title=An Introduction to Zoroastrianism | author=Meredith Sprunger | accessdate=2008-10-10}}</ref>

The only Zoroastrian text that describes hell in detail is the [[Book of Arda Viraf]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hell-on-line.org/AboutZOR.html#The%20Fate%20of%20the%20Soul | title=About Zoroastrian Hell | author=Eileen Gardiner | date=2006-02-10 | accessdate=2008-10-10}}</ref> which depicts particular punishments for particular sins -- for instance, being trampled by cattle as punishment for neglecting the needs of work animals.<ref>Chapter 75, {{cite web | url=http://www.avesta.org/pahlavi/viraf.html | title=The Book of Arda Viraf | accessdate=2008-10-10}}</ref>

===Other===
The hells of Europe include Briton Mythology's “Anaon”, [[Celtic Mythology]]'s “[[Uffern]]”, the hell of Lapps Mythology and Ugarian Mythology's “Manala” leads to annihilation. The hells in the Middle East include [[Sumerian Mythology]]'s “Aralu”; the hells of Canaanite Mythology, Hittite Mythology and [[Mithraism]]; the weighing of the heart in [[Egyptian Mythology]] can lead to annihilation. The hells of Asia include Bagobo Mythology's “Gimokodan” and Ancient [[Indian Mythology]]'s “Kalichi". African hells include Haida Mythology's “Hetgwauge” and the hell of Swahili Mythology. The hells of the Americas include [[Aztec Mythology]]'s “Mictlan”, [[Inuit Mythology]]'s “Adlivun” and Yanomamo Mythology's “Shobari Waka”. The Oceanic hells include Samoan Mythology's “O le nu'u-o-nonoa” and the hells of Bangka Mythology and Caroline Islands Mythology. The Gathas mention a "House of the Lie" where those who had more bad thoughts, words, and deeds go.

==Literature==
[[Image:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Dante And Virgil In Hell (1850).jpg|thumb|"Dante And Virgil In Hell" (1850)by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]].]]
In his ''[[Divina commedia]]'' ('Divine comedy'; set in the year 1300), [[Dante|Dante Alighieri]] employed the conceit of taking [[Virgil]] as his guide through [[Inferno]] (and then, in the second cantiche, up the mountain of [[Purgatory|Purgatorio]]). Virgil himself is not condemned to Hell in Dante's poem but is rather, as a virtuous pagan, confined to [[Limbo]] just at the edge of Hell. The geography of Hell is very elaborately laid out in this work, with nine concentric rings leading deeper into the Earth and deeper into the various punishments of Hell, until, at the center of the world, Dante finds Satan himself trapped in the frozen lake of [[Cocytus]]. A small tunnel leads past Satan and out to the other side of the world, at the base of the Mount of Purgatory.

[[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' (1667) opens with the [[fallen angels]], including their leader [[Satan]], waking up in Hell after having been defeated in the war in heaven and the action returns there at several points throughout the poem. Milton portrays Hell as the abode of the demons, and the passive prison from which they plot their revenge upon Heaven through the corruption of the human race. 19th century French poet [[Arthur Rimbaud]] alluded to the concept as well in the title and themes of one of his major works, "[[Une Saison en Enfer|A Season In Hell]]". Rimbaud's poetry portrays his own suffering in a poetic form as well as other themes.

Many of the great epics of European literature include episodes that occur in Hell. In the Roman poet [[Virgil]]'s Latin epic, the ''[[Aeneid]]'', Aeneas descends into Dis (the underworld) to visit his father's spirit. The underworld is only vaguely described, with one unexplored path leading to the punishments of Tartarus, while the other leads through Erebus and the Elysian Fields.

The idea of Hell was highly influential to writers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] who authored the 1944 play "[[No Exit]]" about the idea that "Hell is other people". Although not a religious man, Sartre was fascinated by his interpretation of a Hellish state of suffering. [[C.S. Lewis]]'s ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' (1945) borrows its title from [[William Blake]]'s ''[[Marriage of Heaven and Hell]]'' (1793) and its inspiration from the [[Divine Comedy]] as the narrator is likewise guided through Hell and Heaven. Hell is portrayed here as an endless, desolate twilight city upon which night is imperceptibly sinking. The night is actually the [[Apocalypse]], and it heralds the arrival of the demons after their judgment. Before the night comes, anyone can escape Hell if they leave behind their former selves and accept Heaven's offer, and a journey to Heaven reveals that Hell is infinitely small; it is nothing more or less than what happens to a soul that turns away from God and into itself.

==Hell in Fantasy Literature==
In the same way that non-religious creation myths abound in fantasy literature, so do versions of Heaven and Hell. [[Piers Anthony]] in his series ''[[Incarnations of Immortality]]'' portrays examples of Heaven and Hell via Death, Fate, Nature, War, Time, Good-God, and Evil-Devil. [[Robert A. Heinlein]] offers a [[yin-yang]] version of Hell where there is still some good within; most evident in his book Job. [[Lois McMaster Bujold]] uses her five Gods 'Father, Mother, Son, Daughter and Bastard' in her ''Chalion'' series with an example of Hell as formless chaos. [[Michael Moorcock]] is one of many who offer Chaos-Evil-(Hell) and Uniformity-Good-(Heaven) as equally unacceptable extremes which must be held in balance; in particular in the Elric and Eternal Champion series. [[C. S. Lewis]] offers one example of Heaven at the end of his [[Narnia]] sequence in ''The Last Battle'', but does not offer a Hell as comparison.

==Translation==
;[[Sheol]]: In the [[King James Bible]], the [[Old Testament]] term ''[[Sheol]]'' is translated as "Hell" 31 times.<ref>Deut. 32:22, Deut. 32:36a & 39, II Sam. 22:6, Job 11:8, Job 26:6, Psalm 9:17, Psalm 16:10, Psalm 18:5, Psalm 55:15, Psalm 86:13, Ps. 116:3, Psalm 139:8, Prov. 5:5, Prov. 7:27, Prov. 9:18, Prov. 15:11, Prov. 15:24, Prov. 23:14, Prov. 27:20, Isa. 5:14, Isa. 14:9, Isa. 14:15, Isa. 28:15, Isa. 28:18, Isa. 57:9, Ezek. 31:16, Ezek. 31:17, Ezek. 32:21, Ezk. 32:27, Amos 9:2, Jonah 2:2, Hab. 2:5</ref> However, ''Sheol'' was translated as "the grave" 31 other times.<ref>Gen. 37:35, Gen. 42:38, Gen. 44:29, Gen. 44:31, I Sam. 2:6, I Kings 2:6, I Kings 2:9, Job 7:9, Job 14:13, Job 17:13, Job 21:13, Job 24:19, Psalm 6:5, Psalm 30:3, Psalm 31:17, Psalm 49:14, Psalm 49:14, Psalm 49:15, Psalm 88:3, Psalm 89:48, Prov. 1:12, Prov. 30:16, Ecc. 9:10, Song 8:6, Isa. 14:11, Isa. 38:10, Isa. 38:18, Ezek. 31:15, Hosea 13:14, Hosea 13:14, Psalm 141:7</ref> ''Sheol'' is also translated as "the pit" three times.<ref>Num. 16:30, Num. 16:33, Job 17:16</ref>
:Modern translations, however, do not translate ''Sheol'' as "Hell" at all, instead rendering it "the grave," "the pit," or "death." See [[Intermediate state‎]].

;[[Gehenna]]: In the New Testament, both early (i.e. the [[KJV]]) and modern translations always translate ''Gehenna'' as "Hell."<ref>Mat. 5:29, Mat. 5:30, Matt. 10:28, Matt. 23:15, Matt. 23:33, Mark 9:43, Mark 9:45, Mark 9:47, Luke 12:5, Matt. 5:22, Matt. 18:9, Jas. 3:6</ref>

;[[Tartarus]]: Appearing only in II Peter 2:4 in the New Testament, both early and modern translations always translate ''Tartarus'' as "Hell."

;[[Hades]]: ''Hades'' is the Greek word traditionally used for the Hebrew word ''Sheol'' in such works as the [[Septuagint]], the Greek translations of the Hebrew Bible. Like other first-century Jews literate in Greek, Christian writers of the New Testament followed this use. While earlier translations (i.e. the [[KJV]]) most often translated [[Hades in Christianity|Hades]] as "hell", modern translations use the transliteration "Hades" or render the word as "the grave" in most contexts. See [[Intermediate state‎]].

;[[Abaddon]]: The Hebrew word ''[[Abaddon]]'', meaning "destruction", is sometimes used as a synonym of Hell.<ref>Roget's Thesaurus, VI.V.2, "Hell"</ref>

;[[Infernus]]: The Latin word ''infernus'' means "being underneath" and is often translated as "Hell".


==References==
==References==
<references/>
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*[[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]], ''The Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners''. Diggory Press, ISBN 978-1846856723
*[[Thomas Boston]], ''Hell''. Diggory Press, ISBN 978-1846857485
*[[John Bunyan]], ''A Few Sighs from Hell (Or The Groans of the Damned Soul)''. Diggory Press, ISBN 978-1846857270
*{{cite book
| last =Metzger
| first =Bruce M. (ed)
| authorlink =
| coauthors = , Michael D. Coogan (ed)
| title = The Oxford Companion to the Bible
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| date = 1993
| location = Oxford, UK
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-19-504645-5 }}
* Wiese, Bill. "23 Minutes in Hell". Lake Mary: Charisma House, 2006. p. 107.


{{Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons}}
*[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/hell.htm Atheist Foundation of Australia] – 666 words about hell.
*[http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2002/7/15/article_02.htm The Jehovah's Witnesses perspective]
*[http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness]
*[http://www.khandro.net/doctrine_Hells.htm example Buddhist Hells]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Merchant, Livingston}}
{{Hell}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1976 deaths]]
[[Category:United States ambassadors to Canada]]


{{US-diplomat-stub}}
[[Category:Hell| ]]
[[Category:Abrahamic mythology]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Life after death]]
[[Category:Religious cosmologies]]
[[Category:Mythological places]]
[[Category:Maya mythology and religion]]
[[Category:Bahá'í teachings]]


[[ja:リヴィングストン・トールマッジ・マーチャント]]
[[ar:جحيم]]
[[az:Cəhənnəm]]
[[bs:Pakao]]
[[br:Ifern]]
[[bg:Ад]]
[[ca:Infern]]
[[cs:Peklo]]
[[da:Helvede]]
[[de:Hölle]]
[[et:Põrgu]]
[[el:Κόλαση]]
[[es:Infierno]]
[[eo:Infero]]
[[eu:Infernu]]
[[fa:جهنم]]
[[fr:Enfer]]
[[fur:Infier]]
[[gl:Inferno]]
[[ko:지옥]]
[[hr:Pakao]]
[[id:Neraka]]
[[is:Helvíti]]
[[it:Inferno]]
[[he:גיהנום]]
[[la:Infernus]]
[[lt:Pragaras]]
[[hu:Pokol]]
[[ml:നരകം]]
[[nl:Hel (geloofsconcept)]]
[[new:नर्क]]
[[ja:地獄 (キリスト教)]]
[[no:Helvete (religion)]]
[[nn:Helvete]]
[[nrm:Enfé]]
[[pl:Piekło]]
[[pt:Inferno]]
[[ro:Iad (religie)]]
[[qu:Ukhu pacha]]
[[ru:Ад]]
[[sco:Hell]]
[[sq:Ferri]]
[[simple:Hell]]
[[sd:دوزخ]]
[[sk:Peklo]]
[[sl:Pekel]]
[[sr:Пакао]]
[[fi:Helvetti]]
[[sv:Helvete]]
[[te:నరకం]]
[[th:นรก]]
[[tr:Cehennem]]
[[uk:Пекло]]
[[zh:地獄]]

Revision as of 07:26, 11 October 2008

Livingston Tallmadge Merchant (1903 - 1976) was an American official and diplomat. He twice served as United States Ambassador to Canada and was Under Secretary for Political Affairs from 1959 to 1961.

Merchant was educated at the Hotchkiss School and Princeton, where he was a member of the University Cottage Club. He joined Scudder Stevens and Clark, an investment counselling firm. He became a general partner in 1930.[1]

In early 1950s, he served as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (under Dean Rusk who served as Assistant Secretary for Far Eastern Affairs and Dean Acheson, then Secretary of State) in the Truman administration.[2]

In 1964 he co-authored the Merchant-Heeney Report which examined bilateral relations between Canada and the United States. He later served as U.S. executive director of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development between 1965 and 1968.[3]

References

  1. ^ *"Diplomat Livingston Merchant Dies". Washington Post. May 17th, 1976. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  2. ^ *Department of State (1977), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1951, Volume VI, Asia and the Pacific (two parts), Government Printing Office
  3. ^ *"Livingston Merchant: Oral history".
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