Siege of Alexandria (641)

Siege of Alexandria

Part of: Islamic Expansion

date	641
place	Alexandria
output	Arab victory

Parties to the conflict
Eastern Roman Empire	Islamic Caliphate
Commander
Unknown	Amr ibn Al-Asi

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad in AD 632, a period of rapid expansion began for the Muslim Arabs. Under the leadership of the first caliphs , the Rashidun , Islamic armies attacked both the Persian Sassanid Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire . The aggressive policies of the Arabs caught both empires by surprise, as they underestimated the power of the united Islamized Arabs. After defeating both the Eastern Roman army at Jarmuk (636) and the Persians at Kadesia (637), the Muslim armies turned their attention to the rich African provinces of the Eastern Roman Empire.

What was striking about the Islamic conquest was the fact that social and political life continued in the conquered lives under the new rulers. Many Christians and Muslims stayed in their positions or even rose to court in Baghdad. This led to a quick stabilization of the new empire. The biggest difference between Muslims and non-Muslims was their taxation. “Unbelievers” had to pay the so-called jizya , while Muslims paid the zakāt .

Eastern Roman Alexandria

The Eastern Roman Empire ruled Alexandria before the Muslims. As the most important Mediterranean port of its time, Alexandria was the key to its control over Egypt, the city itself had a large Greek population. The population of Alexandria had been shaped over the centuries by the Eastern Roman influence on culture and religion, but the majority of the population spoke Coptic instead of Greek or Latin. So the Copts were the most important element of Egyptian society before the arrival of Islam.

For the Eastern Romans, Egypt was the vital food producer. Alexandria was also one of the main army and naval bases of the empire, usually a strong imperial garrison was quartered in the city. After the loss of Palestine in 638, the Eastern Romans concentrated their defense efforts on Asia Minor and Egypt. They should succeed in holding Asia Minor for centuries, while the defense of Egypt became more and more difficult.

Islamic conquest of Egypt

In 634, Omar succeeded the Prophet as the second Muslim caliph . During the early 640s he turned his attention to rich Egypt and especially Alexandria. The Islamic invasion of Egypt was led by ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀs ; his army was superior to any Eastern Roman field army in the region, as they had suffered great losses in the battle of Yarmuk .

The initial attacks were directed only against Alexandria, but rather against the Eastern Roman fortress of Babylon, which secured the Nile Delta. The destruction of the Eastern Roman troops in the following battle of Heliopolis in the summer of 640 and the victory over the defenders of Babylon broke the Eastern Roman rule in Egypt from a military point of view.

The conquest of Alexandria

After the destruction of the Eastern Roman troops at Heliopolis, the city of Alexandria was virtually defenseless; probably only a fraction of the usual troops had been left behind to protect the troops. Although the Eastern Romans could no longer lead an army in the field, Alexandria strong fortifications were enough to keep the Muslim attackers in check. On November 8, 641, the Eastern Roman dignitaries finally had to hand over the city to the Muslims after a fourteen-month siege.

The loss of the metropolis was felt all over the Mediterranean world. The loss of annual grain deliveries from Egypt was disastrous for the Eastern Roman economy; Traders now had to buy the grain from the Muslims at a high price. In this emergency, the Eastern Roman state was almost constantly on the verge of ruin and in some cases even had to resort to piracy to divert the grain into ports controlled by the Eastern Roman Empire.

For the Eastern Roman Empire, Alexandria was a guarantor for a large tax revenue and also for luxury goods. Due to the complete loss of Egypt as a source of taxes and grain, the development of the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire should accelerate.

Eastern Roman counterattack

There were several Eastern Roman and Byzantine attempts to retake Alexandria. Although these efforts were not crowned with lasting success, the Byzantines were able to seize the city again in 645. Arab sources speak of a large Byzantine fleet destined for Alexandria. The imperial forces were led by a general named Manuel. After marching into the city without resistance, they were also able to seize the outskirts of Alexandria. In response, the Muslims assembled a force of 15,000 men, again commanded by ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀs. The Byzantines followed their standard strategy and left Alexandria to seek an open field battle. Battle reports describe that the Muslims first used a hail of bullets, which put many Byzantines to flight. The Byzantines were completely defeated and withdrew from the region.

In 654, Emperor Constans II sent another expeditionary army, which was also repulsed. This was the last Byzantine attempt to retake Alexandria.

Life under Islamic rule

The archaeological findings indicate the continued prosperity of the city under Arab rule. After surrendering, the people of Alexandria were remarkably open to the new masters, often preferring them to the former Eastern Roman officials. Many sources agree that Muslims tried to respect the local mentalities and religion of the subject. The city initially enjoyed extensive autonomy under Arab rule. The following source describes what happened shortly after Amr conquered the city:

“And when [Amr] saw the Patriarch, he received him with respect and said to his followers: 'Truly, in all the lands we have come into possession of, I have never seen a man of God like this. Amr now turned to him and said: 'Continue to administer all your church and your flock and regulate their affairs. And if you pray for me, I will go west and to the Pentapolis to get them into my possession, as I did with Egypt, and after I get back to you safely and quickly, I will do everything for you You ask of me. Saint Patriarch Benjamin prayed for Amr and spoke eloquent words that awe Amr and his companions; they received admonitions for all who heard his words. He revealed certain things to Amr and finally withdrew in full honor. "

In practical terms, the structure of the city remained unchanged. Greek, Coptic and Arabic were understood everywhere. Public documents continued to be written in Greek and Coptic. Coptic continued to be used in medicine, mathematics, and alchemy. Beginning in the 11th century, Arabic displaced Greek and Coptic from the city.

Both before and after the Islamic conquest, Alexandria was characterized by great religious diversity. Since the 3rd century the city had been a stronghold of Monophysitism and Nestorianism, as well as a substantial number of other Christian cults.

Marriages between Muslim men and non-Muslim women also seem to have been common, with a significant number of the Arab conquerors taking Greek, Coptic or Berber women . Since this was undesirable in many places and forbidden by the Caliph Omar, it shows the greater will to integrate than to overthrow the situation.

The importance of Alexandria as an economic and military base for further operations by the Arabs cannot be overestimated. After the fall of Eastern Roman Egypt, the fall of the exarchate of Carthage was only a matter of time. The Cyrenaica fell in 642, Tripoli in 643. The fall of Alexandria also marks the turn of the caliphate from the Arabian Peninsula to the Mediterranean. Egypt was to become the cornerstone of Islamic power in the Mediterranean.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ James Lindsay. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World . (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1957) p. 3
2. ↑ Khalil I. Semaan. Islam and the Medieval West . (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1980) p. 4
3. ↑ Bat Ye'or. The Dhimmi. (Cranberry NJ: Associated University Press, 1985) p. 43
4. ↑ Khalil I. Semaan. Islam and the Medieval West .
5. ↑ Phillip K. Hitti. Capital Cities of Arab Islam. (Minneapolis: Jones Press, 1973) p. 110
6. ↑ James Lindsay. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World.
7. ↑ Khalil I. Semaan. Islam and the Medieval West.
8. ↑ "The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu." (The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu. English Translation, 2002 accessed 8 February 2008) from http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm
9. ↑ James Lindsay. Daily Life in The Medieval Islamic World.
10. ↑ “The History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria” (The Internet Medieval Sourcebook, 1998 accessed 10 February 2008) available from http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/642Egypt-conq2.html
11. ↑ “Coptic Egypt: Background Information” (University College, London, 2003 accessed 13 February 2008) from http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/coptic.coptic.html  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
12. ↑ Kenneth W. Frank. 1993. “Pirenne Again: A Muslim Viewpoint”. The History Teacher 23 (6): 371-383