Sack of Amorion

Sack of Amorion

Map of the Byzantine and Arab campaigns 837–838

date	August 838
place	Amorion
output	Abbasid victory
consequences	Amorion destroyed by the Arabs

Parties to the conflict
Byzantine Empire	Abbasid Caliphate
Commander
Theophilus	al-Mu'tasim Afshin Ashinas
Troop strength
30,000	80,000
losses
30,000–70,000 soldiers and civilians	Unknown

The sack of Amorion by the Abbasid Caliphate in August 838 was one of the key events in the long Arab-Byzantine wars . The Abbasid campaign was led by Caliph al-Mu'tasim (ruled 833-842) in retaliation for a virtually unhindered campaign by the Byzantine emperor Theophilos (ruled 829-842) in the Arab-Byzantine border area last year. Mu'tasim targeted Amorion , a Byzantine city in Western Asia Minor , as it was the city of origin of the ruling Byzantine dynasty and one of the largest and most important cities in the empire.

The caliph assembled an exceptionally strong army, which he divided into two groups. One fell deep into Asia Minor, while the northern group defeated the Byzantine army under Theophilus at Anzen . The Abbasid armies reunited at Ankyra , which they found abandoned. After looting the city, they turned south to Amorion, which they reached on August 1st. Faced with palace intrigues in Constantinople and the rebellion of his Khurramite mercenaries, Theophilus saw no way of helping the city.

Amorion was strongly fortified, but a traitor exposed the Arabs to a weak point in their defense. This is where the Abbasids concentrated their attack and made a breach. The commander of the broken wall section now tried to negotiate secretly with the caliph. He left his post, which the Arabs used to get into the city. Amorion was systematically destroyed and never regained its former prosperity. A large part of the population was massacred and the survivors dragged off as slaves. Many of these survivors were ransomed by treaty in 841, but years later important dignitaries who had been deported to the Abbasid capital of Samarra were executed after refusing to convert to Islam , thereby becoming known as the 42 martyrs of Amorion .

The conquest of Amorion was not only a military disaster and personal tragedy for Theophilus, it was also a blow to Byzantine morality, which is evident from later literature. The looting did not ultimately change the balance of power, which was beginning to shift slightly in the Byzantine favor, but it weakened the theology of iconoclasm , of which Theophilus was a follower. Since the success of iconoclasm relied mainly on military victories, the fall of Amorion contributed significantly to its task shortly after the emperor's death in 842.

background

To celebrate his victory over the Arabs, Theophilos had a number of these Follis coins minted. On the front you can see Theophilos with a toupha . On the back it says: Theophilos Augustus, you conquer.

In 829, when the young Theophilus ascended the Byzantine throne, Byzantium and the Arabs had been at war for nearly two hundred years. Theophilos was an ambitious man and a representative of iconoclasm , who forbade the worship of works of art and the depiction of divine beings. In order to support his rule and his religious convictions he sought military success against the Abbasid caliphate. Arab attacks hit Byzantium uninterrupted, both in the east, where al-Ma'mūn (ruled 813-833) led several major attacks, and in the west by the Aghlabids .

Theophilus, who reacted to iconophile conspiracies, began again in 833 with the persecution of icon worshipers and other "heretics". From a Byzantine point of view, this procedure actually seemed to enjoy divine favor, because al-Ma'mun died at the beginning of a new campaign against Byzantium and his brother and successor al-Mu'tasim only sat very insecure on the throne and had to fight the rebellion of the Churramites -Fight sect under Bābak Khorramdin . This enabled Theophilus to achieve a number of smaller victories and to increase his troops by around 14,000 Churramite refugees under their leader Nasr, who was baptized Christian and was given the name Theophobos . The emperor's successes in those years were not very spectacular, but they came after two decades of defeat and civil war among iconophile emperors. Theophilos wanted his achievements to be understood as an expression of divine confirmation and placed himself in the tradition of Constantine V (741–775) and his victories. Because of his achievements, he ordered the minting of a new type of Follis coins, which were produced in large numbers and portrayed him as the classic, victorious Roman emperor.

In 837, at Babak's urging, Theophilos decided to make a profit from the employment of the caliphate in suppressing the Khurramite revolt and led a major campaign against the border emirates . He gathered a force of 70,000 soldiers (a total of 100,000 to at-Tabarī ) and invaded the almost undefended area on the Upper Euphrates . The Byzantines conquered the cities of Sozopetra and Arsamosata , plundered the surrounding area, extorted ransom from some cities and defeated a number of smaller Arab armies.

While Theophilos was returning to Constantinople to celebrate a traditional Roman triumph , Mu'tasim rallied his troops to counterattack. Not only had the Byzantines openly identified themselves as allies of the Churramites, during the attack on Sozopetra - allegedly the birthplace of Mu'tasim - all male prisoners were executed and the rest sold into slavery.

An Arab army now assembled in Tarsus ; According to the most reliable source ( Michael the Syrian ), it numbered 80,000 soldiers, 30,000 auxiliary troops and a train of 70,000 pack animals. Other sources give much higher numbers like 200,000 to 500,000 (according to Al-Masudi ). This campaign was to go deep into Asia Minor and aim at the cities of Ankyra and Amorion . Amorion was particularly in focus, so the name of the city was allegedly engraved on the shields of the Arabs. As the capital of the important subject of Anatolikon , the city was strategically important at the western end of the plateau of Anatolia and dominated the southern road to the coastal areas of western Asia Minor. At this time the city was one of the most important cities of the Byzantine Empire, in terms of importance it was probably only behind Constantinople and Thessalonica . It was also the birthplace of Theophilos' father, Michaels II (820–829) and perhaps also that of Theophilos himself. Because of its strategic location, the city was the target of Arab attacks several times in the 7th and 8th centuries, already Mu'tasim Predecessor Ma'mun reportedly planned an attack on the city before he died in 833.

Opening moves: Anzen and Ankyra

30,000 men under the command of the experienced General Afschin were dispatched to unite with the troops of the Emir Omar al-Aqta and attack the Armeniacon issue , while the main army, led by the Caliph, was to attack Cappadocia through the Cilician Porte . Part of the caliph's army was sent ahead as the vanguard under Ashinas . The two armies were to meet at Ankyra and then advance together to Amorion. Theophilus soon learned of the caliph's intentions and left Constantinople in June. His army included soldiers from the Anatolian and European themes , the emperor's elite Tagmata and the Churramites. The Byzantines expected the Arab army to turn to Ankyra after crossing the Cilician Gate and then to Amorion, but it would also have been possible that they would have marched directly on Amorion. Although his generals suggested evacuating the city so that the Arab victory would be worthless, Theophilos, on the contrary, decided to reinforce the city's garrison through Aetios, the strategos of Anatolicon, and men from the Tagmata of the Excubitores and the Vigla .

With the rest of his army, Theophilus tried to position himself between the Cilician Gate and Ankyra by setting up camp on the south bank of the Halys . The two Arab armies crossed the border in late June, but Theophilus did not find out about Afshin's army marching north until mid-July. He immediately set out with most of his army, around 30,000 men, to defeat the smaller Arab army. The two armies met on July 22nd at the Battle of Anzen on the plain of Dazimon. Despite initial successes, the Byzantine order of battle fell apart, Theophilus himself was surrounded and was only able to escape with difficulty.

Theophilos quickly gathered his troops and sent Theodoros Krateros to Ankyra. Krateros found the city completely deserted and was ordered to reinforce Amorion instead. Theophilus was soon forced to return to Constantinople, as rumors of his death at the Battle of Anzen had spread. At the same time, the Churramites stationed at Sinope revolted and declared the reluctant Theophobos emperor. But Theophobos made no attempt to challenge Theophilos or to unite his troops with those of Mu'tasim. The Arab vanguard reached Ankyra on July 26th, the other two armies followed a little later. The inhabitants, who had sought refuge in nearby mines, were discovered and captured by the Arabs. After looting the abandoned city, the Arabs turned to Amorion.

Siege and fall of Amorion

Miniature from the Madrid illuminated manuscript of the Skylitzes about the siege of Amorion

The Arabs marched in three separate columns, first Ashinas, the caliph in the middle and Afshin on the flank. They reached the city seven days after leaving Ankyra and began the siege on August 1st. Theophilus, who wanted to prevent the fall of the city, traveled to Dorylaion and from there sent an embassy to Mu'tasim. His ambassadors assured the caliph that the atrocities in Sozopetra happened against the orders of the emperor, promised to help rebuild the city, return all Muslim hostages and pay tribute. However, the caliph refused to negotiate and locked the ambassadors in his tent so they could watch the siege.

The fortifications of the city were strong, the city wall had 44 towers and a wide moat. Both besiegers and defenders had many siege weapons at their disposal , so that at the beginning both sides exchanged volleys. According to Byzantine sources, an Arab prisoner who had converted to Christianity betrayed his new masters and revealed to the caliph a section of the city wall that had recently been damaged by heavy rains and only poorly repaired. The Arabs then concentrated the fire on this section of the wall, so that after two days they had shot a breach in the wall. The Byzantines defended the breach, but their position was hopeless. Aetios tried to break through the siege army at night and reach Theophilos. The plan was betrayed to the Arabs, who now increased their vigilance.

After two weeks of siege (either August 12th, 13th or 15th), Aetios sent an embassy under the leadership of the local bishop outside the walls and had them offer the surrender of Amorion in return for free withdrawal of the inhabitants and the garrison, but Mu 'tasim refused. The Byzantine General Boiditzes, who was entrusted with the defense of the pierced wall section, tried to negotiate with the caliph on his own. He gave his soldiers the instruction not to keep watch on their wall section and went to the Abbasid camp. While Boiditzes was negotiating with the caliph, the Arabs discovered the neglect of the guard and stormed the city. The surprised defenders offered only sporadic resistance. Aetios tried to take shelter in a tower, but was discovered and forced to give up.

The city was completely sacked. The Byzantine chronicler Theophanes Continuatus speaks of 70,000 dead, while the Arab al-Mas'udi cites 30,000. The spoils of war and the remaining inhabitants of the city were divided among the soldiers, with the exception of the civil and military leaders who belonged to the caliph. After allowing the ambassadors of Theophilus to return to their master with the news of the fall of Amorion, Mu'tasim burned the city down, only the city walls survived the inferno.

consequences

Shortly after the battle, news of the rebellion of his nephew al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun reached the caliph . Mu'tasim was forced to break off the campaign and return, so that he left Theophilus and his army at Dorylaion unscathed. Choosing the direct route from Amorion to the Cilician Gate, the Arabs and their captives suffered great losses in the heat of Central Anatolia. 6000 of them were executed on the orders of the caliph.

Miniature from the Madrid illuminated manuscript of the Skylitz with the depiction of the dispatch of the tour march Basileios to al-Mu'tasim (seated) after the fall of Amorion.

Theophilus sent another embassy to the caliph, who presided over the Tourmarches Basileios. She brought gifts and letters of apology as well as an offer to buy the noble captives for 20,000 Byzantine pounds (approx. 6,500 kg) gold and to release all captured Arabs. In response, Mu'tasim demanded the extradition of the Theophobos and the Domestikos of the Scholes , Manuel the Armenian , who had deserted from the Abbasid army a few years earlier. The Byzantine ambassadors refused, not least because Theophobos was in open revolt and Manuel was probably dead. Instead, he handed Basil a second, threatening letter from Theophilos. Mu'tasim was upset about this and returned the emperor's gifts.

The Strategos Aetios was executed around the same time, perhaps in response to Theophilos's second letter. The majority of the prisoners were exchanged for Arab prisoners in a contract in 841, but the dignitaries and officials were excluded from this contract. After years of imprisonment, they were asked to convert to Islam. When they refused, they were executed on March 6, 845 in Samarra. They are venerated by the Orthodox Church as the 42 martyrs of Amorion. Several stories emerged over time about Boiditzes and his betrayal. According to the legend of the 42 martyrs, he converted to Islam, but was killed by the caliph. Unlike the bodies of saints who "miraculously" swam in the waters of the Tigris River , his sank to the bottom.

effect

The sack of Amorion was one of the most devastating events in the history of Arab raids into Anatolia. Theophilus fell ill shortly after the city fell, and although he did recover, his health did not fully recover until his death three years later. Later Byzantine chroniclers attribute his early death to grief over the loss of the city, which is arguably a legend. The fall of Amorion inspired poems and chants such as the song of Armouris or the ballad Kastro tis Orias ("Castle of the beautiful young lady"). Arab sources celebrate the fall of the city, such as B. Abu Tammam's ode about the conquest of Amorion .

In fact, the military impact on Byzantium was relatively small: apart from the population and garrison of Amorion, there were few losses, as the revolt of the Churramites could be ended bloodlessly in the next year. Ankyra was quickly rebuilt and settled, as was Amorion, although it never regained its former importance after the headquarters of the Anatolicon theme was moved to Polybotos . The Abbasids could not profit from the victory and after Mu'tasim's death in 842 their state fell into a long period of disintegration.

The defeats of the Byzantine army at Anzen and Amorion were probably more a product of chance than a consequence of ineptitude. Only Theophilus had made the twofold mistake of dividing his troops and relying on the Khurramites as auxiliary troops. After the defeat, Theophilus had the army restructured and the Churramites scattered over the individual subjects.

The most momentous result of the fall of Amorion was of a religious rather than a military nature. The defeats severely weakened iconoclasm as a way of gaining divine favor and, consequently, of victory in the battles against neighboring Muslim states. A year after Theophilos' death, on March 11, 843, a synod reinstated the worship of icons and iconoclasm was declared heresy.

literature

• John Bagnell Bury : A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). Macmillan and Company, London 1912.
• Aikaterine Christophilopoulou: Byzantine History, Volume II, from 610 to 867. AM Hakkert, Amsterdam 1993, ISBN 978-90-256-1044-9 .
• John F. Haldon: Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565-1204. University College London Press, London 1999, ISBN 1-85728-494-1 .
• Eric A. Ivison: Amorium in the Byzantine Dark Ages (seventh to ninth centuries). In: Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium. Volume 2: Byzantium, Pliska, and the Balkans. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-018358-0 , pp. 25-59.
• The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium . 3 vols. New York / Oxford 1991.
• Irini-Sofia Kiapidou: Campaign of the Arabs in Asia Minor, 838. In: Encyclopedia of the Hellenic World, Asia Minor. Foundation of the Hellenic World, 2003.
• M. Rekaya: Mise au point sur Théophobe et l'alliance de Babek avec Théophile (833 / 834-839 / 840). In: Byzantion. 44, 1977, pp. 43-67.
• Warren Treadgold : The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. Stanford University Press, Stanford 1988, ISBN 0-8047-1462-2 .
• Mark Whittow: The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025. Berkeley / Los Angeles 1996, ISBN 0-520-20496-4 .

Remarks

1. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 414-415.
2. ↑ ^{a b c} Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, p. 297.
3. ↑ Ivison: Amorium in the Byzantine Dark Ages (seventh to ninth centuries). 2007, p. 31.
4. ↑ ^{a b c d} Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780–842. 1988, p. 303.
5. ↑ ^{a b} Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 283, 287-288.
6. ↑ ^{a b} Whittow: The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025. 1996, pp. 152-153.
7. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 272-280.
8. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 280-283.
9. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 259-260; Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 286, 292-294.
10. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 261-262; Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 293-295.
11. ^ Kiapidou: Campaign of the Arabs in Asia Minor, 838, 2003, chapter 1 .
12. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 263 (Note # 3).
13. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 262-263; Kazhdan: The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. 1991, pp. 79, 1428, 2066.
14. ↑ ^{a b c} Whittow: The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025. 1996, p. 153.
15. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 262; Kazhdan: The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. 1991, p. 79; Ivison: Amorium in the Byzantine Dark Ages (seventh to ninth centuries). 2007, p. 26.
16. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 297, 299.
17. ↑ ^{a b} Kiapidou: Campaign of the Arabs in Asia Minor, 838. 2003, chapter 2.1 .
18. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 263-264; Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, p. 298.
19. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 264-265; Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 298-300.
20. ↑ ^{a b c} Kiapidou: Campaign of the Arabs in Asia Minor, 838. 2003, chapter 2.2 .
21. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 300-302.
22. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 266.
23. ↑ ^{a b c d} Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780–842. 1988, p. 302.
24. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 267.
25. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 266-267.
26. ↑ ^{a b} Rekaya: Mise au point sur Théophobe et l'alliance de Babek avec Théophile (833 / 834-839 / 840). , P. 64.
27. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 267-268.
28. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 268.
29. ^ Kiapidou: Campaign of the Arabs in Asia Minor, 838. 2003, note 19 .
30. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 268-269; Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 302-303.
31. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 269-270.
32. ↑ Ivison: Amorium in the Byzantine Dark Ages (seventh to ninth centuries). 2007, pp. 31, 53.
33. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 270; Kiapidou: Campaign of the Arabs in Asia Minor, 838. 2003, chapter 2.3 .
34. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 272; Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 303-304.
35. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 304, 445.
36. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 273-274.
37. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 271-272; Kazhdan: The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. 1991, pp. 79, 800-801.
38. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, pp. 270-271.
39. ↑ ^{a b} Kiapidou: Campaign of the Arabs in Asia Minor, 838. 2003, chapter 3 .
40. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 304, 415.
41. ^ Christophilopoulou: Byzantine History. 1993, pp. 248-249.
42. ↑ Canard: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. 1986, p. 449.
43. ^ Bury: A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (AD 802-867). 1912, p. 273 ff .; Kazhdan: The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. 1991, pp. 79-80, 2068; Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 304, 313-314.
44. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 304-305.
45. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, pp. 351-359.
46. ^ Treadgold: The Byzantine Revival, 780-842. 1988, p. 305; Whittow: The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025. 1996, pp. 153-154.