capitalist

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Capitalist usually means a person who has economic values ( capital ) at their disposal, which they use according to plan in order to get back a greater value. The capitalist assumes the risk for the investment process himself . The term capitalist can also be used to refer to an adherent of capitalism .

etymology

According to Duden, the word capitalist today means "someone who has capital" or "follower of capitalism". In both cases it is mostly used disparagingly. Somewhat out of date it can also mean someone whose income (predominantly) consists of interest, pensions or profits'.

The word capital in its meaning, wealth, (interest-bearing) sum of money 'goes back to the Latin word capitalis . This meant, in relation to the head, in life, mainly 'or' important '. In Middle Latin it is found as a noun, movable good, value, basic sum '. On Capitalis the Italian based capitale , value, principal sum, assets in money, wealth '; capital is borrowed from it in the 16th century . Capital replaced increasingly earlier expressions like Hauptgut or late Middle High German expressions like houbetguot , houbetsumme , houbetgelt . In the 16th century, the old Venetian form cavedal was sometimes used in German texts .

The term “capitalist” was already used in economics in the middle of the 16th century by Wolffgang Schweicker in his work “ Zwifach Buchhalten sampt seine Giornal ”, Petreius, Nuremberg 1549. In the 17th century capitalist could mean "money owner" and in the 18th century "entrepreneur, owner of production facilities".

The digital dictionary of the German language indicates, relative to the DWDS corpus, that the word capitalist was used more often since the beginning of the 19th century and that this tendency gradually reversed towards the end of the 19th century.

Adam Smith and David Ricardo

Adam Smith (1723–1790) distinguishes three sources of income in his work The Wealth of Nations : labor, capital and property. This corresponds to the types of income wage, profit / interest and basic rent.

A person can in principle have several sources of income, but according to Smith there are typical distributions of property and income. Usually the landlord does not cultivate his land himself, but workers do it for him. From the product of their labor they have to hand over something to the landlord as rent. Often the person who tills the land needs a tenant to look after him until the harvest. The latter takes some of the product from the worker in order to make a profit. This principle applies in many areas of the economy. There is a capital owner who provides the workers with material to be worked and pays them wages. The workers add a new value to the material, part of which the owner of the capital appropriates as profit. Smith's approach can therefore be referred to as the wage deduction theory. For example, someone could have capital and work himself like a self-employed craftsman, but that rarely happens.

The masters or owners of land or capital fight with the workers over the wages to be fixed in a contract. The former want to pay as little as possible, while the latter want the highest possible wage. According to Smith, the gentlemen have the upper hand. They can organize themselves more easily, in the event of a strike they can hold out longer because of their capital and the state allows them - unlike the workers - to unite.

Smith saw capital owners as a historical phenomenon. He describes a state in which there was no private ownership of land and no capital. At that time the worker received the entire product of his labor instead of having to share it with an owner of land or capital.

David Ricardo (1772–1823) distinguishes three main classes in the foreword of his work On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817): landowners, capital owners and workers. Through the use of nature, labor, machines and capital, society creates a product, a part of which the classes appropriate as basic rent, profit or wages.

Concepts of the capitalist in Marx and Engels

In Karl Marx's (1818–1883) major work, Capital, there is no complete, systematic treatment of classes . Marx did not deal with the classes until the end of the third volume. The manuscript on which this volume is based ends after a few pages. Marx made a classic division into three main classes, namely landowners, capitalists and workers along the corresponding types of income, basic rent, profit and wages. Although he restricts the fact that one cannot find this three-way division in pure form and that there are intermediate forms, the capitalist mode of production tends towards such a class structure. One finds neither a definition of the capitalist nor a division into different types of capitalists in the manuscript. Anyone who is a capitalist must be inferred from various passages from Das Kapital .

Marx understood capital as an abstract value that can be utilized. The general formula of capital movement is M - W - G '. The value appears as money. Money is used to buy goods in order to sell for more money. Value growth becomes an end in itself; the movement is without immanent end and measure.

The capitalist makes this movement his subjective end. As a capitalist he must strive for the greatest possible exploitation. Only in this way can he reinvest or modernize the company so that he can survive as a capitalist in the competition. The laws immanent in capital thus appear to it as external laws of compulsion. Marx viewed the capitalist as personified capital, that is, as capital endowed with consciousness and will; capital is the automatic subject: although it is lifeless, it directs the movement. Marx referred to practical constraints instead of condemning the individual capitalist. He explicitly distanced himself from this in the preface to the first edition.

In the first volume of Das Kapital , Marx contrasts the capitalists as owners of money or means of production with the doubly free worker. The latter may freely dispose of his labor and can conclude employment contracts, but he is also free from subsistence means and must therefore sell his labor for wages. The capitalist, on the other hand, has to buy labor power and, if possible, exploit it in order to realize his capital. In the production process, the worker transfers the value of the means of production used up to the quantity of goods to be created and creates a new value. He receives part of this as wages and the capitalist appropriates the rest as surplus value . With the wages, the worker receives the value of the labor power, that is, the value of those foodstuffs that are considered necessary for the labor power to reproduce. This includes the cost of the working class family so that the working class can reproduce. The extent of what is considered necessary can vary from country to country and change over time; it also depends on what the working class claims to be necessary.

An owner of money who only employs a few workers and has to be active in the production process himself in order to earn a living is not a capitalist in the narrow sense of the word. Only when he only organizes and controls the capitalist production process and takes care of sales does he become capital personified. Every work process that involves a relatively large number of workers requires leadership. The capitalist mode of production, however, gives management a specific character. The capitalist unites the labor force under his command in order to make them serve his purpose. The management function serves primarily to maximize capital utilization or exploitation of wage workers. As the size of capital increases, the capitalist also cedes management and supervisory functions to wage workers, such as managers or supervisors.

The industrial capitalist does not have to own large industrial complexes. Marx does not determine "industrial" in terms of material, but on the value level. Industrial capital goes through a certain cycle, namely M - W ... P ... W '- G'. Marx analyzed this in the second volume. The capitalist has money and buys goods or labor and means of production. This is the first phase of the circulation process. In the production process P his workers create a higher value quantity of goods W '. This is finally sold in the second phase of the circulation process for a higher amount of money G '. Its capital successively assumes the forms of money capital, productive capital, and commodity capital in order to return to the money form. So it can be advanced again as money capital. Capital can only create surplus value as industrial capital; Commercial capitalists and money capitalists, on the other hand, can only appropriate surplus value. Instead of producing commodities, the industrial capitalist can also let his workers do services. In this case the cycle is G - W ... P - G '. In contrast to the goods, the service must be consumed while it is being performed.

The industrial capitalist thus undertakes the production of products or the performance of services in which surplus value is formed. This can include agricultural goods as well as services in educational institutions. Certain services can be included in the circulation of goods, but they act as an extension of the production time, since they create added value or increase the value of the product, e.g. B. Storage and transport. They represent circulation costs of a productive kind.

According to Marx, the function of the commercial capitalist consists only in changing the form of money and commodities; its workers are unproductive or create no added value. One example is the cashier. The industrial capitalist sells his goods below value to the commercial capitalist, who sells them at their value. You share the added value. The industrial capitalist thereby saves the pure costs of circulation of the trading capitalist, and his advanced capital flows back to him more quickly.

In the third volume, Marx can presuppose the unity of production and circulation. It deals with the interest-bearing capital on this basis . It becomes clear that ownership and the formal status of the wage laborer are not reliable criteria.

The formula of interest-bearing capital is G - G - W - G '- G' '. The money capitalist owns money and lends it to a functioning capitalist who z. B. used as an industrial capitalist to make profit. The gross profit achieved is divided into the entrepreneurial profit of the functioning capitalist and the interest of the money capitalist. This general movement is mediated by historically changeable institutions, namely banks and capital markets. The functioning capitalist can, but does not have to, possess capital himself and he can formally be a wage worker, e.g. B. a CEO of a stock corporation who does not own any shares. In such a position, however, he may have value and use it as capital. He takes over the overall direction and organization of the exploitation. His pay is based on the profit made, rather than the value of the labor.

It should be noted that several of these terms can apply to one person. So someone can be an industrial capitalist and at the same time act as a trading capitalist by offering transport services and selling them. Likewise, someone can be a money capitalist and a functioning capitalist in that he lends his own capital and is himself a borrower who utilizes outside capital. Furthermore, several people can take over the function of capitalist together, ie act as a combined capitalist , as in the case of a stock corporation. This also applies to workers' associations who work in cooperatives. It is true that they arise within capitalist relationships, but like the stock corporations they represent an associative mode of production and mean a first overcoming of capitalist private enterprises. The logic of capital remains: the workers collectively assume the function of the capitalist and must utilize their labor by means of their means of production.

The capitalists as a class were also called the bourgeoisie by Marx . They have replaced the nobility of feudalism as the ruling class. Marx distinguishes the capitalists from the landowners, who get part of the surplus value through rent. He also differentiated capitalists from the petty bourgeoisie, who can be understood as smaller self-employed, such as small farmers, artisans or small traders.

According to Marx, the capitalist has become historical as the dominant figure in production and will perish with capital. Capital dominates production and trade only under certain historical conditions. This concerns above all the original accumulation as well as the accompanying spread of wage labor and the generalization of commodity production. As capital develops, it tends to produce elements of its downfall that make a communist society possible.

In Anti-Dühring , Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) used the concept of the ideal total capitalist . As such, the state assumes the function of safeguarding the conditions for the realization of capital. The scope is not fixed forever. This can affect different areas, such as B. infrastructure, education or a stable value money. In an emergency he must protect these conditions against individual capitalists and workers. The more the state itself possesses productive forces, the more it becomes a real total capitalist . As such, he exploited his citizens as wage laborers.

Joseph Alois Schumpeter

Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883-1950) distinguishes the capitalist from the entrepreneur. A capitalist has capital that he invests and bears the risk for; the entrepreneur as such, on the other hand, only has the function of introducing innovations , that is, novel combinations of production factors , into the economic process. Innovations include, for example, new goods, new methods of production, the development of new raw materials or sales areas as well as the reorganization of an industry, such as B. by creating or breaking a monopoly. Ownership of capital, the risk involved or inventing do not necessarily belong to the entrepreneurial function. The entrepreneur can come from all classes and he or his dynasty can become capitalists. The entrepreneurial function is not restricted to a specific type of company. One can find bearers of this function in feudal, capitalist or socialist societies.

Schumpeter defines his concept of capital in monetary and functional terms. Capital consists of means of payment with which the entrepreneur buys on the market the goods that he needs for his enterprise. This could be land, raw materials, machines or work done, for example. Capital is nothing more than the entrepreneur's lever to control these goods. So capital is a fund of purchasing power; the goods bought, however, are not capital.

The entrepreneur's innovation is an important factor in the capitalist economy that creates imbalances in the market. Economic life itself changes spontaneously and discontinuously. If an entrepreneur is the first to introduce a new mode of production, thanks to which he can produce more cheaply than his competitors and sell at market price, he thereby achieves an entrepreneurial profit in the Schumpeterian sense; it has a monopoly position, but this disappears when competitors also carry out the innovation and it has generalized. Schumpeter also sees innovation as a key factor in creating private wealth.

The capitalist class is not static, but develops primarily through undertakings. The successful entrepreneurs or their dynasty rise to the upper classes; their rise means the descent of others who could not assert themselves in the competition. Between the entrepreneur and the mere steward of the inheritance there is another segment of the bourgeoisie, namely industrialists, traders, financiers and bankers.

Schumpeter considered capitalists and entrepreneurs to be historical phenomena. The capitalist epoch began in England in the middle of the 18th century. The early entrepreneurs were often capitalists. Together with the entrepreneur, the capitalist class will perish in a long process of transformation to socialism. The entrepreneur as adventurer who follows his intuition is increasingly being replaced by specialists who invent something routinely and safely calculating; the strong-willed personality who follows a vision will be replaced by rationalized and specialized office work. The successful entrepreneurs who rise to the capitalist class, however, and that section of the bourgeoisie that moves between the entrepreneurial adventurer and the mere steward of inherited property, create the returns on which the whole class lives. The incomes of the industrial capitalists become salaries for ordinary administrative work in huge, fully bureaucratized industrial complexes, and the capitalist class ceases to function.

literature

Web links

Wikiquote: Capitalist  Quotes
Wiktionary: Capitalist  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Single receipts

  1. ↑ Capitalist who. In: Duden. Retrieved June 10, 2020 .
  2. ↑ a b c d e Wolfgang Pfeifer et al .: Capitalist. In: Etymological Dictionary of German. Digitized version in the digital dictionary of the German language, revised by Wolfgang Pfeifer. 1993, accessed June 10, 2020 .
  3. ↑ DWDS word curve for "capitalist". In: Digital dictionary of the German language. Retrieved June 10, 2020 .
  4. ^ Adam Smith: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . Edwin Cannan. Volume 1. Methuen, London 1904, p. 54 ( libertyfund.org ): "Wages, profit, and rent, are the three original sources of all revenue as well as of all exchangeable value. All other revenue is ultimately derived from some one or other of these. Whoever derives his revenue from a fund which is his own, must draw it either from his labor, from his stock, or from his land. The revenue derived from labor is called wages. That derived from stock, by the person who manages or employs it, is called profit. That derived from it by the person who does not employ it himself, but lends it to another, is called the interest or the use of money. [...] The revenue which proceeds altogether from land, is called rent, and belongs to the landlord. "
  5. ^ Adam Smith: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . Edwin Cannan. Methuen, London 1904, p. 67 ( libertyfund.org ): "As soon as land becomes private property, the landlord demands a share of almost all the produce which the laborer can either raise, or collect from it. His rent makes the first deduction from the produce of labor which is employed upon land. "
  6. ^ Adam Smith: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . Edwin Cannan. Volume 1. Methuen, London 1904, p. 67 ( libertyfund.org ): "The produce of almost all other labor is liable to the like deduction of profit. In all arts and manufactures the greater part of the workmen stand in need of a master to advance them the materials of their work, and their wages and maintenance until it be compleated. He shares in the produce of their labor, or in the value which it adds to the materials upon which it is bestowed; and in this share consists his profit. "
  7. ↑ Heinz-J. Bontrup: wages and profits. Economics and business basics . 2nd Edition. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich / Vienna 2008, p. 26-28 .
  8. ^ Adam Smith: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . Edwin Cannan. Methuen, London 1904, p. 67-68 ( libertyfund.org ): "It sometimes happens, indeed, that a single independent workman has stock sufficient both to purchase the materials of his work, and to maintain himself until it be compleated. He is both master and workman, and enjoys the whole produce of his own labor, or the whole value which it adds to the materials upon which it is bestowed. It includes what are usually two distinct revenues, belonging to two distinct persons, the profits of stock, and the wages of labor. Such cases, however, are not very frequent [...] and the wages of labor are every where understood to be, what they usually are, when the laborer is one person, and the owner of the stock which employs him another. "
  9. ^ Adam Smith: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . Edwin Cannan. Methuen, London 1904, p. 68 ( libertyfund.org ): "The workmen desire to get as much, the masters to give as little as possible. [...] It is not, however, difficult to foresee which of these two parties must, upon all ordinary occasions, have the advantage in the dispute, and force the other into a compliance with their terms. The masters, being fewer in number, can combine much more easily; and the law, besides, authorities, or at least does not prohibit their combinations, while it prohibits those of the workmen. [...] In all such disputes the masters can hold out much longer. A landlord, a farmer, a master manufacturer, or merchant, though they did not employ a single workman, could generally live a year or two upon the stocks [...] Many workmen could not subsist a week [...] "
  10. ^ Adam Smith: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations . Edwin Cannan. tape 1 . Methuen, London 1904, p. 66 ( libertyfund.org ): "The produce of labor constitutes the natural recompence or wages of labor. In that original state of things, which precedes both the appropriation of land and the accumulation of stock, the whole produce of labor belongs to the laborer. He has neither landlord nor master to share with him. "
  11. ^ David Ricardo: The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Introduction by Michael P. Fogarty . JM Dent & Sons Ltd / EP Dutton & Co Inc, London / New York 1960, p. 1 (first edition: 1911): "The produce of the earth - all that is derived from its surface by the united application of labor, machinery, and capital, is divided among three classes of the community, namely, the proprietor of the land, the owner of the stock or capital necessary for its cultivation, and the laborers by whose industry it is cultivated. But in different stages of society, the proportions of the whole produce of the earth which will be allotted to each of these classes, under the names of rent, profit, and wages, will be essentially different; [...] "
  12. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 193-194 .
  13. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. (Economic manuscript 1863-1865). Third book. The Formations of the Overall Process . In: International Marx-Engels Foundation Amsterdam (ed.): Marx-Engels-Gesamtwerke (MEGA) II.4.2. Economic manuscripts 1863–1867. Part 2 . 2nd Edition. De Gruyter Academy, 2012, ISBN 978-3-05-005119-2 , p. 901-902 .
  14. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 83-84 .
  15. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 84-85 .
  16. ^ David Harvey: A Companion to Marx's Capital. The Complete Edition . Verso, London / New York 2018, ISBN 978-1-78873-154-6 , pp. 377-378 .
  17. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 85-86 .
  18. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 16 : “A word to avoid possible misunderstandings. I by no means draw the figures of capitalists and landowners in a rosy light. But here we are dealing with persons only insofar as they are personifications of economic categories, bearers of certain class relations and interests. Less than any other can my point of view, which regards the development of the economic social formation as a natural-historical process, hold the individual responsible for conditions whose creatures he remains social, however much he may subjectively rise above them. "
  19. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 87-88 .
  20. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 98-100 .
  21. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 90-91 .
  22. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 107 .
  23. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 350–351 : “All directly social or collective work on a larger scale requires more or less a direction that mediates the harmony of individual activities and performs the general functions that arise from the movement of the productive body as a whole in contrast to the movement of its independent organs . A single violin player conducts himself, an orchestra needs the music director. This function of management, supervision and mediation becomes the function of capital as soon as the work subordinate to it becomes cooperative. As a specific function of capital, the function of management has specific characteristics. First of all, the driving motive and determining purpose of the capitalist production process is the greatest possible self-utilization of capital, that is, the greatest possible production of surplus value, that is, the greatest possible exploitation of labor power by the capitalist. The greater the number of workers employed at the same time, so does their resistance, and with it the pressure of capital to overcome this resistance. The management of the capitalist is not only a special function arising from the nature of the social labor process and belonging to it, it is at the same time a function of the exploitation of a social labor process and therefore conditioned by the inevitable antagonism between the exploiter and the raw material of his exploitation. Likewise, the greater the extent of the means of production which the wage laborer faces as foreign property, the greater the need to control their proper use. Furthermore, the cooperation of the wage workers is the mere effect of the capital which it applies simultaneously. The connection of their functions and their unity as a productive body as a whole lie outside of them, in the capital that brings them together and holds them together. The context of their work appears to them ideally as a plan, practically as the authority of the capitalist, as the power of an alien will that subjects their actions to its purpose. "
  24. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 351 : “If, therefore, capitalist management is twofold in terms of content, because of the twofoldness of the production process to be managed, which on the one hand is a social labor process for the production of a product, on the other hand, the process of valorization of capital, then it is despotic in form. With the development of cooperation on a larger scale, this despotism develops its peculiar forms. Just as the capitalist is initially released from manual labor as soon as his capital has reached the minimum size at which capitalist production actually begins, so he now relinquishes the function of direct and continuous supervision of the individual workers and groups of workers to a special kind of wage workers . Like an army of the military, a mass of workers working together under the command of the same capital needs industrial senior officers (conductors, managers) and non-commissioned officers (labor overseers, foremen, overlookers, contre-maitres) who command during the labor process in the name of capital. The work of the superintendent is attached to its exclusive function. "
  25. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 131-132 .
  26. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 133-134 .
  27. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 134 .
  28. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 532 and p. 777 .
  29. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. Second volume. Book II: The Circulation Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 24 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1963, p. 138-153 .
  30. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 134-135 .
  31. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 133 .
  32. ↑ a b Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 194-195 .
  33. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 154-156 .
  34. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 158 .
  35. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 353 : “This power of Asiatic and Egyptian kings or Etruscan theocrats etc. [= to use the cooperation and division of labor to create great works, i. V.] has passed over to the capitalist in modern society, whether he appears as an isolated capitalist or, as in stock corporations, as a combined capitalist. "
  36. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. Third volume. Book III: The Overall Process of Capitalist Production . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 25 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1964, p. 456 : “The cooperative factories of the workers themselves are, within the old form, the first breakthrough of the old form, although of course everywhere, in their real organization, they have to reproduce and reproduce all the defects of the existing system. But the opposition between capital and labor is eliminated within them, even if at first only in the form that the workers, as an association, are their own capitalists, that is, use the means of production for the valorization of their own labor. They show how, at a certain stage of development of the material productive forces and their corresponding social forms of production, a new mode of production naturally develops and emerges from a mode of production. Without the factory system that arises from the capitalist mode of production, the cooperative factory could not develop, and just as little without the credit system that arises from the same mode of production. The latter, as it forms the main basis for the gradual transformation of capitalist private enterprises into capitalist stock corporations, also offers the means for the gradual expansion of cooperative enterprises to a more or less national scale. The capitalist joint ventures, like the cooperative factories, are to be regarded as transitional forms from the capitalist mode of production to the associated one, only that in one the opposite is negative and in the other positive. "
  37. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 181 .
  38. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 194 .
  39. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 183-184 and pp. 741-744 .
  40. ^ Karl Marx: The capital. Critique of Political Economy. First volume. Book I: The Production Process of Capital . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 23 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1962, p. 789-791 .
  41. ↑ Michael Heinrich: Critique of the political economy. An introduction . 14th edition. Butterfly Verlag, Stuttgart 2018, p. 210-211 .
  42. ↑ Friedrich Engels: Mr. Eugen Dühring's upheaval in science . In: Institute for Marxism-Leninism at the Central Committee of the SED (Ed.): Karl Marx Friedrich Engels Works (MEW) . tape 20 . Dietz Verlag, Berlin 1975, p. 260 : “And the modern state is again only the organization which bourgeois society gives itself in order to maintain the general external conditions of the capitalist mode of production against encroachments, both by the workers and by the individual capitalists. The modern state, whatever its form, is an essentially capitalist machine, the state of capitalists, the ideal total capitalist. The more productive forces he takes over into his property, the more he becomes a real total capitalist, the more citizens he exploits. The workers remain wage workers, proletarians. The capital ratio is not canceled, it is rather driven to extremes. "
  43. ^ A b Joseph A. Schumpeter : Business cycles. A theoretical, historical, and statistical analysis of the capitalist process , Volume I, Göttingen 1961, p. 112 ( Business Cycles. A Theoretical, Historical, and Statistical Analysis of the Capitalist Process. New York 1939).
  44. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy . 10th edition. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen 2020, p. 172 .
  45. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 100-101 .
  46. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Business cycles. A theoretical, historical and statistical analysis of the capitalist process . tape 1 . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1961, p. 111–112 ( Digitale-sammlungen.de [accessed June 27, 2020]).
  47. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 111 : “Secondly, we speak of entrepreneurs not only for those historical epochs in which there are entrepreneurs as a special social phenomenon, but we link the term and name to the function and to all individuals who actually fulfill this function in any form of society, they are too Organs of a socialist community or lords of a serfdom or chiefs of a primitive tribe. "
  48. ↑ Bärbel Naderer: The Development of the Monetary Theory Joseph A. Schumpeters. Static and dynamic theory of money in the capitalist market system (Volkswirtschaftliche Schriften, issue 398) . Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1990, p. 90-93 .
  49. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 166 .
  50. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 165 : “Capital is nothing else than the lever that is supposed to enable the entrepreneur to subject the concrete goods he needs to his rule, nothing else than a means to dispose of goods for new purposes or as a Means of dictating a new direction for production. That is the only function of capital and it marks its position in the organism of the national economy. "
  51. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 167 : “The capital of a company is also not the epitome of all goods serving its purposes. For capital is opposed to the world of goods: goods are bought for capital - "capital is invested in goods" - but this is precisely where the knowledge lies that its function is different from that of the goods acquired. [...] That Capital is the means of procuring goods. "
  52. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 94 and pp. 98-99 .
  53. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Business cycles. A theoretical, historical and statistical analysis of the capitalist process . tape 1 . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1961, p. 112-113 .
  54. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Business cycles. A theoretical, historical and statistical analysis of the capitalist process . tape 1 . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1961, p. 114 .
  55. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 238-239 .
  56. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy . 10th edition. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen 2020, p. 174–175 : "So although the entrepreneurs do not form a social class per se, they absorb the bourgeois class along with their families and connections, and thereby continually rejuvenate and enliven themselves, while at the same time the families who maintain their active relationships with" business " solve it, leave it after a generation or two. In between there are the masses of those who we call industrialists, merchants, financiers or bankers; they are on the intermediate stage between venturing an entrepreneurship and the mere ongoing management of an inherited property. "
  57. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 95 : "[...] The right to life of this problem and this turning off the path of the accepted theory does not already lie in the fact that the changes in the national economy especially, if not only, in the capitalist epoch, ie in England since the middle of the eighteenth, in Germany since the forties of the nineteenth century, did not go on in this way and through continuous adaptation and could only go on in this way according to their nature, but in their fertility. "
  58. ↑ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Theory of economic development. A study of entrepreneurial profits, capital, credit, interest and the business cycle . 7th edition. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1987, p. 303 : “What has been said explains other well-known facts of business life. Thus it explains how it happens that at any given point in time the entrepreneurs work largely with their own capital, with a sum of purchasing power that corresponds to goods already sold. This fact, combined with the further facts that it is naturally much easier for such entrepreneurs to obtain credit than those without wealth, and that at the historical beginning of the capitalist period it was not easy for people other than those who already had wealth to become entrepreneurs, meant that theory, just as practice found it difficult to distinguish between entrepreneurs and capitalists. "
  59. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy . 10th edition. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen 2020, p. 173-174 .
  60. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy . 10th edition. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen 2020, p. 174-175 .
  61. ^ Joseph Alois Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy . 10th edition. Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, Tübingen 2020, p. 175 : "The completely bureaucratized industrial giant unit displaces not only the small or medium-sized company and" expropriates "its owners, but ultimately also displaces the entrepreneur and expropriates the bourgeoisie as a class that runs the risk in this process, not only its income, but what is infinitely more important, also to lose its function. "