Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain

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Lucrecia's Dreams is a micro-historical study , written by Richard L. Kagan , about the dreams and prophecies of the young Spanish woman Lucrecia de León at the end of the 16th century. For her dreams about Spain's political future, she was characterized by the Spanish Inquisition as an evil dreamer and eventually charged with blasphemy and other crimes. The author's central interest in knowledge is the personal and political consequences, the writing down and the dissemination of the prophetic content of Lucrecia's dreams. Her prophetic dreams , the subsequent reactions and the circumstances that led to her arrest are reconstructed on the basis of the trial files received.

Question and interest in knowledge

The author's aim is to locate Lucrecia's dreams and her personal story in historical events and to reconstruct the 16th century Spain under Philip II . Based on the historical sources of the process, Lucrecia's life, personality and character are also depicted.

The question posed by the Inquisition and on what the author's research is based is: Were Lucrecia's dreams real, and what ulterior motives guided the writing and publication of her dreams? Kagan found the unique documents from Lucrecia's trial and based his study on them. He was fascinated by the elusive figure of Lucrecia and the general influence of prophecies on the political situation in Spain.

swell

The sources on which this book is based are 30 Dream Registers with the records of Lucrecia's dreams in the period from December 1, 1587 to April 18, 1590. Other documents from the process of the Spanish Inquisition from 1590 to 1595 are central components the study.

Lucrecia dictated and related her dreams to various clergymen, who then wrote them down. Kagan came across clues about Lucrecia's case while researching another research project. Fascinated by it, he examined the entire case file of Lucrecia's case.

The records are characterized by simple syntax and sparse rhetorical debauchery. The first person formulation reflects the spoken language of the time as well as Lucrecia's style of language. However, certain passages of the notes suggest that the clergy participated in the formulation. The documents used by Kagan are located in the Archivo Historico Nacional de Madrid and contain, in addition to the trial files, around 400 transcribed transcripts of Lucrecia's dreams. As the author himself points out, this unique material must be treated with caution in view of the possible manipulation.

content

King Philip II (portrait by Alonso Sánchez Coello, around 1570)

Several topics are explored in Lucrecia's Dreams. The most important are the figure of Lucrecia and the process before the Spanish Inquisition, the political circumstances under the monarch Philip II and the social and religious role of women in the 16th century. The focus is also on the contents and analyzes of Lucrecia's prophetic dreams and the writings thereof. The reader is guided chronologically through the key events in Lucrecia's life through to her arrest and trial.

Lucrecia de León

Lucrecia de León was a young woman from a modest background who lived in Spain in the late 16th century. She started having prophetic dreams at a young age. There is no information about Lucrecia's entire biography, as her traza de la vida (curriculum vitae) is missing from the documents examined. Her character and personality were determined by Kagan using a micro-historical approach from the available sources. Religion was central in Lucrecia's life, it largely adhered to social rules and was active in various parishes. She was described by her fellow human beings as religious and submissive. Despite the author's in-depth research, her character does not remain entirely transparent. On the one hand, she portrayed herself as naive, illiterate and innocent, on the other hand, she was also described as boastful, self-confident and conceited.

The image of women in the 16th century was shaped by the conviction that women were the weaker sex. This weakness was also linked to susceptibility to diabolical forces, which was also claimed in Lucrecia's case. This was a factor that detracted from their credibility. In addition, unlike other recognized prophets, she had no religious vocation and was therefore not supported by any religious institution.

Lucrecia's prophetic dreams

Lucrecia's dreams contain elements from her life as well as events from her everyday life. However, their dreams of historical events and predictions affecting the royal family and Spain's future attracted general interest. Connected with this was mostly criticism of King Philip II and of his church and tax policy. Through the acquaintance of the two clerics Alonso de Mendoza and Lucas de Allende , Lucrecia's dreams were made accessible to a larger audience. Convinced of their gifts as prophetess, they began to take minutes of their dreams. Then Lucrecia came into contact with the aristocratic milieu of Spain, where she found support on the one hand, but also met with rejection. Your supporters at the court Philip II and Lucrecia themselves were in contact with the political opposition, with Antonio Pérez also playing a significant role. The publication of their dreams (despite various warnings) was felt by their supporters as a duty, as these were viewed as God's messages and warnings to the king.

However, the publication of Lucrecia's dreams hit the kingdom in a rather delicate phase, which was marked by defeats and unrest as well as by the deteriorating health of the king. This, along with uncertainty about the credibility of their dreams, piqued the Inquisition's interest. Lucrecia was accordingly seen as a direct threat to the crown. After Antonio Pérez escaped, Lucrecia was finally arrested by the Inquisition.

The Toledo Trial

The coat of arms of the Spanish Inquisition

The charge was: inventing dreams with various blasphemous and heretical theses, inflammatory and slanderous statements against the monarch of Spain (Philip II). On May 31, 1590, all suspects (including Lucrecia, Allende, Mendoza, etc.) were detained in the Inquisition's prison in Toledo, and the hearings began shortly afterwards. The aim of the Inquisition was to produce a confession based on the presumption of guilt of the accused.

Lucrecia's defense arguments are not inherently coherent across the various hearings. Initially, Lucrecia presented herself as the innocent victim of Allende and Mendoza. She used the image of women at the time in her favor and pleaded on her ignorance and inability to invent such complex dreams. The investigation did not lead to any result, so that after five years in prison the Suprema (High Council of the Inquisition) intervened. Under the leadership of new inquisitors, Lucrecia was first brought for torture interrogation, where she confessed to several things: First, she admitted to having made up some dreams. In a second interrogation, however, she testified that Allende and Mendoza had altered some dreams and incited them to lie. Before ratifying her testimony, she changed her confession again and denied all charges.

The judgment

When the verdict was announced, all of the charges were brought to Lucrecia for the first time:

Lucrecia was sentenced to 100 lashes, banishment from Madrid and two years of retreat in a monastery. The other defendants were also sentenced to rather mild sentences, such as exile, admonitions and retreat to the monastery. The last records of Lucrecia's case are located in a hospital in Toledo, whereupon their traces are lost. Based on speculation and research into letters, other sources and files, Kakao came to different assumptions about Lucrecia's fate after her release from prison. It could be that she became a street fortune teller, went to a welfare institution for women, or worked as a maid, beggar or prostitute.

Importance of the work

Lucrecia's story can be seen as a telling case with regard to the socially defined gender roles in the 16th century and their influence on the living conditions of women and men. Thanks to the extensively preserved documents, the Lucrecia case shows how your individual case can be representative of the social, religious and political realities of the 16th century. Lucrecia's self-portrayal as a weak woman manipulated by powerful men was repeatedly used as a defense strategy during the trial. This indicates that she was aware of this social distribution of roles and also used it to her advantage. Kagan's work and the study of Lucrecia's figure provide an important insight into the theological and social gender constructs in Spain in the 16th century.

The question of the motivation behind Lucrecia's prophetic career could be answered with a desire to exert political influence. One possible way for a woman in the sixteenth century to influence politics was through the virtue of spiritual and spiritual gifts. It was through this that a woman could gain authority and influence. According to the author, however, these pre-defined societal roles of women in 16th century Spain cannot explain Lucrecia's personal and private interests. Nevertheless, her prophetic dreams led to increased attention and opened up the opportunity for social advancement. However, her personality is split and from the available sources it is not clear what the main reason for her dreams and the pursuit of a career as a prophetess was. It can be assumed, however, that Lucrecia was initially used as an instrument for the interests of her supporters and that her dreams of the downfall of Spain served as legitimation for her complaints against the king and his actions.

Lucrecia's case lends itself well to a micro-historical study because she is viewed as an ordinary woman , comes from a humble background, and is not considered a central historical figure. In addition, their history is micro-historically relevant as their life and process have been captured and written down, which is considered a tailored source for this type of study. However, apart from her statements during the process and the writing down of the dreams, there are no other documents and, above all, no documents written by herself.

reception

Kagan's work was received very positively by various critics. Historian JB Owens particularly praised the in-depth insight into the role of women at the time and the importance of prophecies and prophetic gifts for the political events of this work. Similar to other micro-historical studies ( The Cheese and the Worms / Montaillou ), legal documents are also used here and, with a lot of research, an overall picture of Lucrecia and her environment is meticulously created. In addition, Kagan manages to include the dream protocols here and thus gives the process an additional facet.

According to historian Albert J. Loomie, the many details of Lucrecia's life are skillfully deduced from the documents. It is also remarkable how an overall picture of Lucrecia was created from the existing documents.

In Magnússon's and Szijártó's work What is Microhistory? Theory and Practice is listed alongside many other historians and micro-historical works, including Richard L. Kagan. Reference is made briefly to his work Lucrecia's Dreams . A positive review and a table of contents can be read, although it is also described as less successful compared to other microhistorical works.

Lucrecia became the main character of another book: Lucrecia the Dreamer . In this work by Kelly Bulkeley (religious psychologist, dream researcher) the focus is not on historical facts, as is the case with Kagan, but on the psychological analysis of Lucrecia's dreams.

Jody Bilinkoff's review of Kagan's work is also full of praise. Nevertheless, it is illuminated that it is not unique, because like Kagan many other historians have dealt with the uncovering of unknown women and their stories. The mention of such similar studies helps to embed the work in a historiographical context. Despite leaving these out in the work, his merits are not diminished as the study contributes to an important area of ​​historical science.

The religious historian William A. Christian compares Kagan's Lucrecia's Dreams with the work of William Monter Frontiers of Heresy; The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily . The connection between historical facts and Lucrecia's case is valued in Kagan's work. The bottom-up view that Kagan shows in this work is another plus point. Christian adds that Juan Bldzquez Miguel's Estudio historico. Sueños y Procesos de Lucrecia de León and other writings on Lucrecia's case were not adequately mentioned in Kagan's work (as also noted by Jody Bilinkoff).

Theology and Church History professor Gillian Ahlgren recommends Lucrecia's Dreams because of the crucial importance of the case, given key issues relating to church-state relations during the 16th century.

In a review by Kimberly and Rowe of Kagan, his success in the English-speaking and international arenas is mentioned and the achievement of an international academic audience is valued. Not only Lucrecia's Dreams was successful, but also his subsequent works are characterized by a positive reception.

In a lengthy preface to The Earley Modern Hispanic World, Geoffrey Parker mentions Kagan's senior figure as a mentor to his students and describes his academic career in a laudatory tone.

JB Owen's review mentions Geoffrey Parker's praise for Kagan's work, as well as Kagan's central role in US historical discipline. Geoffrey Parker expresses his criticism regarding the lack of interdisciplinarity in some of Kagan's works. Even so, Kagan is described as an advocate for the inclusion of social science in the study of history.

output

  • English original edition: Richard L. Kagan: Lucrecia's dreams: politics and prophecy in sixteenth-century Spain. University of California Press, Berkeley California 1990, ISBN 0-520-06655-3 .

literature

  • Kelly Bulkeley: Lucrecia the Dreamer: Prophecy, Cognitive Science and the Spanish Inquisition . Stanford University Press, Stanford 2018.
  • Geoffrey Parker : Preface: Richard L. Kagan, to Appreciation. In: Kimberly Lynn, Erin Kathleen Rowe: The Early Modern Hispanic World: Transnational and Interdisciplinary Approaches Cambridge University Press 2017, ISBN 978-1-107-10928-5 .
  • Richard L. Kagan: Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain . University of California Press, Berkley 1990, ISBN 978-0-520-20158-3 .
  • Albert J. Loomie: Kagan, (Richard L.). Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain . In: Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire . Volume 70, No. 4, 1992, pp. 1034-1035.
  • Jack B. Owens: Review Lucrecia's Dreams . In: The Sixteenth Century Journal . Volume 22, No. 4, 1991.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Richard L. Kagan: Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain . University of California Press, Berkley 1990, ISBN 978-0-520-20158-3 .
  2. ↑ a b Kimberly Lynn, Erin Kathleen Rowe: The Early Modern Hispanic World: Transnational and Interdisciplinary Approaches . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2017.
  3. ^ A b Gillian TW Ahlgren: Book Reviews. Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain. By Richard L. Kagan . In: Church History Journal , Volume 63/1994, No. 1, Cambridge University Press 2009, pp. 99-100.
  4. ^ Richard L. Kagan: Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain . University of California Press, Berkley 1990, ISBN 978-0-520-20158-3 , p. 166.
  5. ↑ a b Jack B. Owens: Review Lucrecia's Dreams . In: The Sixteenth Century Journal . Volume 22, No. 4, 1991, pp. 801-802.
  6. ↑ Albert J. Loomie: Kagan, (Richard L.). Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain . In: Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Histoire . Volume 70, No. 4, 1992, pp. 1034-1035.
  7. ^ Sigurður Gylfi Magnússon, István Szijártó: What is Microhistory? Theory and Practice . Routledge, New York 2013, ISBN 978-0-415-69208-3 , p. 54.
  8. ^ Kelly Bulkeley: Lucrecia the Dreamer: Prophecy, Cognitive Science and the Spanish Inquisition . Stanford University Press, Stanford 2018.
  9. ↑ Jody Bilinkoff: Reviewed Work (s): Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain by Richard L. Kagan . In: The American Historical Review . Volume 97, No. 1. Oxford University Press 1992, pp. 220-221.
  10. ↑ William A. Christian Jr .: Reviews: William Monter, Frontiers of Heresy; The Spanish Inquisition from the Basque Lands to Sicily, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990; xiv + 345 pp .; Richard L. Kagan, Lucrecia's Dreams; Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain, Berkeley, Los Angeles and Oxford, University of California Press, 1990; xiii + 229 pp. ; In: European History Quarterly . Volume 22, No. 4, 1992, pp. 641-644.
  11. ^ Geoffrey Parker: Preface: Richard L. Kagan, an Appreciation. In: Kimberly Lynn, Erin Kathleen Rowe: The Early Modern Hispanic World: Transnational and Interdisciplinary Approaches . Cambridge University Press 2017, ISBN 978-1-107-10928-5 .
  12. ↑ Jack B. Owens: Review of Kimberly Lynn and Erin Kathleen Rowe, The Early Modern Hispanic World: Transnational and Interdisciplinary Approaches . In: Bulletin for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies . Volume 42, No. 16, 2017, pp. 141-146.