Roman combat tactics

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The fighting techniques of the Roman army can be reconstructed from descriptions in ancient written sources, but also from archaeological finds, for example from items of equipment, as well as from pictorial representations.

description

Little is known for sure about the Roman fighting techniques used in the early days of Rome ; It can be assumed that the fight was initially in rather disordered formations in individual combat.

Under Greek influence, in the course of the Servian army reform , the Romans switched to fighting in closed battle lines like a Greek phalanx . At that time Rome's contingent was staggered according to the armor and armament of the soldiers, with the heavily armored fighters in the first rows and the lightly armored fighters in the last rows. The armament at that time was similar to that found in the Etruscans or Greeks. When the strong "tower shields" ( scutum ), characteristic of Roman legionaries for a long time, were introduced is not documented, but these were probably part of the typical equipment of heavy Roman infantry from an early stage. In the early days, Rome itself had drawn up the range of different types of troops customary at the time. With the emerging system of allies, the functions of the lighter units and the cavalry were increasingly taken over by the Socii and finally set up as so-called auxiliary troops in the imperial era and federates made up of non-Romans in late antiquity .

Phalanx tactics

At the time of the phalanx tactics, the collision took place with long pushing lances ( hasta ), with which the enemy formation should be broken up. After falling below their range, the decision was sought in close combat with short swords. In the run-up to the meeting of the heavy infantry in the center, attacks were carried out by so-called skirmishers and light infantry ( Velites ) as well as slingers and archers, who were supposed to weaken the opposing ranks and bring them into disorder. When the main contingents approached, the light units in front withdrew behind them or to the side. Cavalry units were usually set up on the lateral ends in order, if possible, to grab the enemy in the flank and break up their closed formation or to counter appropriate attempts by enemy cavalry. This process remained essentially unchanged in later times. However, additional tactical elements were added through different equipment and setup. In late antiquity, cavalry units became increasingly important.

Cohort tactic

The firmly closed, uniform phalanx was established around the 4th century BC. Abandoned in favor of a more relaxed constellation called manipulation tactics. The 160 men strong (depending on the period) stood in staggered meetings . This made the formation more flexible and the slaughter line-up more flexible. Due to the army reform attributed to Gaius Marius , the cohort tactic then prevailed. The tactical base unit now had almost 500 men. This entailed a streamlining of the organization on the battlefield and thus the possibility of more effective strategic and tactical planning, because by reducing the chain of command by one level, the number of units to be overseen was reduced and the leaders of the maniples and cohorts were given more personal responsibility. Nevertheless, the cohort tactic was not applied rigidly everywhere, for example when terrain or opponents required a procedure in smaller combat formations.

At the same time, the legionnaires' equipment was standardized. Due to the social change and the high demand for soldiers, the old system could no longer be maintained, in which the soldier had to procure his own equipment depending on his personal ability and was then assigned to the appropriate units. Ultimately, each soldier was now given largely uniform basic equipment. This also marked the transition from the citizen militia to the professional army. The staggering of the battle line was no longer based on the amount of armor and armament that was dependent on personal wealth. A qualitative breakdown within the central element of heavy infantry was now made through professional experience. In the first meetings there were soldiers armed with javelins, short swords, daggers, helmets, shields and mostly with chain mail. At times the last meetings were veterans equipped with lances. In the imperial era, the lances disappeared completely from the infantry arsenal, only to be reintroduced in a different form in late antiquity.

additional

With their large shields, the Romans also formed special formations such as the "tortoise" ( Testudo ). For the battle in the open field, the Romans designed an effective form of combat in order to weaken enemy closed formations. The legionaries, who were equipped with pila (Sg. Pilum ), hurled them shortly before the battle lines came together. Understandably, the enemy tried to repel them with the shield. If a pilum got stuck in the shield, the long, soft shaft of the javelin would bend and prevent it from being thrown back. In addition, the weight of the spear in the shield hindered the opponents, so that they often had to give up their shields. In addition, legions usually carried several transportable catapults (Karrobalistae) with which heavy darts could be fired from a great distance. Various siege machines could be built by the accompanying craftsmen for sieges .

Another characteristic of Roman warfare was the regular building of fortified camps with moats, walls and palisades. This was done for every night camp and, if the last night camp was not available as such, a fortified camp was usually set up before battles, in which the entourage could be left protected, but also as a refuge for reorganization in the event of a defeat was intended.

literature

  • John Warry: Warfare in the Classical World. An illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors, and Warfare in the ancient Civilizations of Greece and Rome . University of Oklahoma Press, Norman OK 1995, ISBN 0-8061-2794-5 .
  • Hans Delbrück : History of the Art of War. Antiquity. From the Persian Wars to Caesar . Reprint of the first edition from 1900. Nikol Verlag, Hamburg 2003, ISBN 3-933203-73-2 .
  • Michael Simkins, Ronald Emleton: The Roman Army from Caesar to Constantin. 44 BC - 333 AD Siegler Verlag, Sankt Augustin 2005, ISBN 3-87748-646-0 .
  • Kate Gilliver: On the Road to Empire. A history of the Roman army. Theiss, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8062-1761-0