South Korean film

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The Megabox in the COEX Mall in 2008

The South Korean film went through after a first heyday in the late 1950s and early 1960s, difficult times under the military dictatorship. It was only with democratization from the late 1980s that the South Korean film industry was able to renew itself and gain in importance worldwide. The cinemas coined a new style that found its way into the film world internationally under the term Korean New Wave . The country has developed into a film giant: South Korea has the fifth largest cinema market in the world after viewers with around 50 million inhabitants and has a technology leader in the cinema world with cinema operator CJ CGV .

Two terms have become established for the South Korean film industry: Chungmuro ​​and Hallyuwood. Similar to the way Hollywood stands for American films , Chungmuro stands for South Korean films. The Seoul district was once the center of the South Korean film industry. In the meantime, however, this position has been assigned to the southern port city of Busan , which in 2014 was awarded the title “City of Films” by the UNESCO Creative Cities Network . Nevertheless, one continues to speak of the Chungmuro stars , analogous to Hollywood stars . Another name for South Korea's film industry is based on the Korean wave . This describes the worldwide success of South Korean pop culture and should not be confused with the Korean New Wave . The term “Korean wave” established itself in China and Japan in the late 1990s , when journalists reported on the success of K-pop and Korean television dramas in their countries. In Korean, "wave" means Hallyu , from which the name Hallyuwood for South Korean cinema spread internationally.

history

The birth of Korean film

The young director and actor Na Woon-gyu made the film Arirang , which is considered the most important Korean film of the silent era.

Shortly after the cinematograph by the French Lumière brothers became popular at the end of the 19th century , the film also came to Korea. Initially, various foreign films were imported, the first around 1897/98. The film became popular just as Korea was facing the growing influence of the Japanese Empire in global politics, which culminated in the colonization of Korea in 1910 .

On October 27, 1919, the first Korean film production was shown in the Dansungsa cinema with Fight for Justice (Original title: 의리 적 구투 Uirijeok Gutu ). In 1966, filmmakers and the government agreed to proclaim October 27th “Film Day” to celebrate the birth of Korean cinema. Half of this film was a play. In the literature it is controversial which film should be considered Korea's first feature film. In 1926 the silent film Arirang by Na Woon-gyu was released , which is considered to be one of the most important films of early Korean cinema. It was the first film to focus on national pride and resistance to Japan's colonial rule . The Japanese occupation forces did not initially forbid the film because they did not recognize the film's anti-Japanese message. For Koreans, however, it was clear. The film was about a mentally unstable man who murdered a wealthy landowner connected to the Japanese police. Lee Gyu-hwan tied thematically to this in his debut work A Ferry Boat That Has No Owner ( 임자 없는 나룻배 , 1932) and is one of the most important directors of the silent film era. The silent film Crossroads of Youth ( 청춘 의 십자로 Cheongjun-ui Sipjaro ), published in 1934, was discovered in 2007, making it the oldest surviving Korean film today.

In 1935, a new film adaptation of the folk tale Chunhyang-Jeon came out Korea's first sound film . In 1937 Lee Gyu-hwan had a great success with Wanderer ( 나그네 Nageune ), which made sound films the new norm. However, it was also the year Japan invaded China and the pressure to make pro-Japanese films grew. The flourishing of the film industry came to an abrupt end in 1942 when the government of Japan banned Korean-language productions and films were only used for war propaganda.

After the war: The divided Korea and the heyday

Scene from the film A Hometown in Heart ( 마음 의 고향 , 1949) with Choi Eun-hee . The film is considered one of the most important of its time and was thought to be lost for a long time before it was found again in 2005.

On August 15, 1945, World War II ended in Asia and Korea was liberated from Japanese colonial rule. This created euphoria and optimism among the population, which did not last long. In 1948 the division was cemented with the establishment of the Republic of Korea in the south and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north . The time in between (1945 to 1948) was marked by films about the independence movement and the newly won freedom, such as The Chronicle of An Jung-geun ( 안중근 사기 , 1946), Yun Bong-gil, the Martyr ( 윤봉길 의사 , 1947) or Viva Freedom! ( 자유 만세 Jayu Manse , 1946). But with the division, ideological films followed, including anti-communist films and works about the tragedy of the division. Still, the cinema began to unfold and use new methods and techniques. During this time, Hong Seong-gi produced A Diary of Woman ( 여성 일기 Yeoseong Ilgi , 1949), the first South Korean color film . American films made up more than 50 percent of the South Korean cinema market. Considering that only 61 films were produced in South Korea from 1946 to 1950 - compared to more than a hundred American films played per year - this is considered a success.

Movie poster for Madam Freedom (1956)

In 1950 the Korean War broke out and directors shot footage from the front. After the war ended in 1953, the South Korean film industry flourished briefly for the first time. Since the war devastated the country, new, modern equipment had to be purchased for the shooting and was therefore state-of-the-art. While fifteen films were made in 1954, there were already 111 in 1959. Directors were able to work relatively freely and increasingly offered entertaining films instead of ideological films. In 1955, Lee Gyu-hwan had a very successful remake of Chunhyang-jeon . The postwar years saw a flood of historical films and films Korean legends . However, Han Hyung-mo celebrated a great success in 1956 with his satire of contemporary South Korea with the title Madame Freedom ( 자유 부인 Jayu Buin ), so that more and more contemporary films were produced. Furthermore, numerous genres were experimented with, e.g. B. melodrama, comedy, thriller, gangster and horror films. During this period until the 1980s, the South Korean cinema was immediately linked to the Chungmuro district of Seoul , which at times was home to over 70 film companies. It became the street of culture, artists and film. A change and awakening was noticeable in society and increasing modernization and Americanization could be seen while Western democracy shaped politics. It was also the time when actors were first celebrated like stars .

In 1960, two milestones in South Korean film history appeared with Hanyo - The Housemaid by Kim Ki-young and Obaltan by Yu Hyun-mok . Hanyo is about a manipulative housewife who seduces the man of the house and thus destroys the Confucian order of the household. The motif of the femme fatale is used in many of Kim's films. The film combines the contemporary difficulties of the citizens with motifs of neorealism in an expressionist tone and image. He addresses the destruction caused by the Korean War and industrial growth. In 1961, Kang Dae-jin's The Coachman ( 마부 Mabu ) became the first South Korean film to win a major international prize: the Grand Jury Prize at the 11th Berlinale . In the same year one of Shin Sang-oks most famous films was released: The Houseguest and My Mother . Shin was one of the defining directors of the time. The South Korean film industry grew both in the number of productions and in the range of genres on offer, gained international prestige and the number of viewers continued to rise.

In 1961, a military coup continued that made Park Chung-hee president of the country . Park Chung-hee wanted to promote the economic development of South Korea and took every part of society. This also included the promotion and control of the film industry. Under him, state film censorship was systematically expanded. Three major parts of the 1962 Film Act were the establishment of a producer registration system, import quotas for foreign films, and censorship guidelines. Any trace of alleged pro- communism and criticism of the state was prevented. For example, prolific director Lee Man-hee was arrested for portraying North Koreans as too human in the 1965 film Seven Women Prisoners . Nor should any films be produced that could make the population “more careless”. Furthermore, many smaller film studios were forcibly merged, so that in 1963 only five large studios remained: Shin Films, Kuk Dong, Hapdong, Taechang and Hanyang. In late 1966, a quota was imposed on cinemas requiring them to show at least one Korean film every two. The films then had to be played for at least 90 days.

A major part of Park's policy was to support the so-called chaebols , large family-run companies. The consolidation of the producers led to a few but large film studios. Park's film policy, however, focused primarily on production, while theatrical distribution and exploitation were neglected. Only registered producers could make films. However, it was common practice for independent producers to purchase production licenses from registered producers (daemyeong jejak) for a fee . It was illegal, but the state did not act against it. From 1963 the government stipulated that each producer had to publish 15 films a year. This promoted the growth of the aforementioned practice. Many producers could only meet the quota by passing on the rights. This led to a rapid increase in film productions. When the level of about 120 films a year was achieved in 1966, the government took action against the Daemyeong productions because the officially registered producers had matured their companies to the point that they should maintain this level on their own. However, this led to protests, as a result of which the government gave in and legalized the Daemyeong system. The number of productions continued to grow rapidly.

In 1968 at least 200 films of various genres were released. In 1969, South Korean cinemas had over 173 million viewers, a record at the time. The First Motion Picture Act and Park Chung-hee resulted in not only censorship but also incentives through awards for high quality films. During this time there were many literary adaptations , including Obaltan (1961), Kim's Daughters (1963) and Descendants of Cain (1968) by Yu Hyun-mok , Mother and a Guest (1961), Kinship (1963), Affection (1966) and Potato (1968) by Shin Sang-ok and Seashore Village (1965), Sound of Magpies and Mist (1967) by Kim Soo-yong. In addition, the color film also prevailed. The 1960s became South Korea's heyday for film and cinema became the main form of entertainment in society. In literature, the 1960s are often described as the golden age of Korean cinema. The term describes a phase in which the cinema finds social acceptance and is recognized as an art form as well as an economic and technological product.

Censorship and propaganda

Number of televisions and
moviegoers in South Korea
year Televisions Cinema visits
1966 000000000043684.000000000043,684 000000156336340.0000000000156.336.340
1967 000000000073224.000000000073.224 000000164077224.0000000000164.077.224
1968 000000000118262.0000000000118,262 000000171341354.0000000000171.341.354
1969 000000000223695.0000000000223,695 000000173043273.0000000000173.043.273
1970 000000000379564.0000000000379,564 000000166349541.0000000000166.349.541
1971 000000000616392.0000000000616.392 000000146303355.0000000000146.303.355
1972 000000000905365.0000000000905.365 000000118723789.0000000000118,723,789
1973 000000001282122.00000000001,282,122 000000114625241.0000000000114.625.241
1974 000000001618617.00000000001,618,617 000000097375813.000000000097.375.813
1975 000000002014927.00000000002,014,927 000000075597977.000000000075,597,977
1976 000000002809131.00000000002,809,131 000000065700738.000000000065,700,738

The proliferation of television since the late 1960s contributed to the downturn in cinema. While there was previously little competition in the entertainment sector, television posed a serious threat to cinemas. The number of cinemas in South Korea decreased from 659 in 1969 to 541 in 1976.

The Daemyeong system also created a glut of inferior films. In 1971, 80% of all films published were made by transferring the license to independent producers. According to Yecies and Shim (2012), it is ironic that government compliance with industry demands for control ultimately weakened the manufacturing environment and led into the “dark ages”. Furthermore, government control of the film industry increased in the 1970s. In 1972, under Park Chung-hee's regime, the Yushin authoritarian constitution was enacted. In 1973 the Motion Picture Promotion Corporation (MPPC) was founded, which was supposed to officially support South Korean films, but mainly controlled the film industry and carried out censorship measures based on the ideals of the government. One of the best films of the time is the social commentary March of the Fools (1975) by Ha Kil-jong. Due to the portrayal of society under the Park regime, parts of the film were cut out for the cinema. The portrayal of poverty was also not approved. Due to the social, political and ideological censorship, mainly love films or films with erotica as a topic were made.

Despite the restrictions imposed by the government, the directors managed to make some artistically rich films. In 2012 Darcy Paquet curated a retrospective of 1970s South Korean cinema at the Udine Far East Film Festival . The German film journalist Michael Kienzl drew the following conclusion: "[...] as gloomy, adventurous and revealing as some of the films are, they in no way appear as if they were made under strict restrictions, let alone that they have something in common with those propaganda films. known from dictatorial regimes. Instead, we now know that exciting and stylistically diverse films were also made in South Korea in the 1970s. But no trace of artistic bankruptcy. ” In 1973 Kwon-taek published the film Japcho ( 잡초 ), which marked a change in his style of directing . Film adaptations were still popular among seasoned directors Kim Ki-young, Yu Hyun-mok and Shin Sang-ok. However, these were hardly successful. Instead, new directors emerged. In 1975, Kim Ho-sun released Youngja's Heyday ( 영자 의 전성 시대 Yeongja-ui jeonseong sidae ), which became one of the most successful films of the 1970s and caused a wave of hostess films.

The hostess films portrayed the situation in South Korea in the 1970s. Due to the economic upswing, companies needed more staff. So now women emerged as workers, while work was previously men’s business and women took care of the household. However, women worked in poor conditions. They received less wages than men and often had to take on jobs that required very long working hours, as workers in the textile factories, bus conductors or maids. Women from the countryside came to the city especially for work. Those who ultimately did not want to continue working under such conditions often ended up in prostitution. The hostess films dealt with this social constellation.

The censorship under Park Chung-hee's regime is at times considered irrational and inconsistent. She focused on films critical of the regime as well as politically and socially realistic films. However, films with sexual content were ignored, even though the Film Act stated that the representation of prostitutes, prostitution, rape and immoral sex was prohibited. The film researcher Park Jae-yoon argues that the entire state film policy of this time should only serve to divert attention from political issues. On television, erotic scenes continued to be strictly censored, making adult films part of the survival strategy of the ailing cinema industry. The previously mentioned hostess films dominated the cinema. In the films there was often a protagonist who moves from the country to the big city and experiences sexual trauma there. Heavenly Homecoming to Stars (1974) by Lee Jang-ho was the most-visited film in South Korean cinema at the time. With Winter Woman , Kim Ho-sun was able to celebrate another great success in 1977. While some writers see the films as positive for addressing social issues, others see the films as immoral for exploiting female sexuality. Researcher Hyo Kim from Ewha Womans University argues that the films were not censored because they also made use of the regime of benevolent scenes, e.g. in The Rose that Swallowed Thorn (1979) through symbols of the park regime and the depiction of the economic upswing through panoramic shots of modern buildings and railway lines. This would effectively negotiate the censorship.

In the 1970s, Shin Sang-ok , who is one of the most important directors of the 1950s and 1960s and who knew Park Chung-hee well, fell victim to censorship. Shin resented President Park's actions. In 1975 Shin recorded two censored scenes in his trailer for Rose and Wild Dog ( 장미 와 들개 ). This displeased Park, and when Shin continued to announce that he would make a left-wing politically motivated film, Shin's film studio was revoked. In 1978, the disappearance of Shin Sang-ok and his ex-wife, actress Choi Eun-hee , caused a stir. They married in 1953 until they divorced in 1970. They were kidnapped separately by North Korean agents in 1978. In 1983, Shin and Choi were invited by Kim Jong-il to eat together, where they met again for the first time. On the orders of Kim Jong-il, they were remarried and made films for North Korea. The North Korean dictator Kim was a cineast and wanted to enrich North Korea with film art with the two stars. Before the whereabouts of Shin and Choi were cleared up through their appearance at film festivals in 1984, there were numerous rumors about their disappearance, e.g. that they were killed by the South Korean secret service, that they went to North Korea due to censorship or, as it ultimately turned out to be correct that they were kidnapped. In 1986 Shin and Choi escaped via the American embassy in Vienna . Both lived under the protection of the CIA in the US until 1999 before returning to South Korea. Shin Sang-ok said that Kim Jong-il had a large archive of films. It also contains his favorite films from South Korea from before the 1970s. Lee Man-hee's Late Autumn (1966) is one of the 200 or so films . The film is considered a masterpiece and has been lost in South Korea . In fact, only 22% of South Korean films from the 1950s and 44% of films from the 1960s remain.

Democratization and Commercial Boom

In 1979 the President of South Korea, Park Chung-hee, was killed in an attempted coup. Again the military took over and Chun Doo-hwan formed a new regime that existed from 1980 to 1988. During this time the democracy movement was formed. In May 1980, following student demonstrations, the regime declared martial law, sealed off the city of Gwangju and carried out a massacre against the democracy movement there . As a result, the censorship of the film was tightened and the importance of domestic productions continued to decline. Domestic films were primarily used to meet the quota for importing foreign productions. In the mid-1980s, South Korea was faced with US trade pressure. South Korea followed a protectionist policy . The Motion Picture Export Association of America has been lobbying for the opening of the South Korean market for decades. In 1985 the organization reported unfair import conditions for foreign films to the United States Trade Representative . The US government then campaigned for a liberation of the market. In order not to be disadvantaged when exporting industrial products to the USA, for example cars, South Korea responded to the USA and liberated the film market. The Uruguay Round from 1986 to 1994 as part of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade also provided for the opening of the market for media and culture. The most significant change was in the second film deal between South Korea and the US in 1988, which allowed foreign companies to set up branches in South Korea to distribute their films directly. Previously, the market was monopolized and few South Korean companies were allowed to import foreign films, while foreign companies were not allowed to distribute their films directly. The South Korean film industry has been exempted from strict requirements and the import quota. However, after decades of censorship, the South Korean film, which was hardly competitive, was now facing a free market, which represented a new situation for the filmmakers.

Im Kwon-taek is one of the most important directors in South Korean film history.

A new generation of directors grew up and brought new momentum to the film industry. Im Kwon-taek and Lee Doo-young dared to approach a new style and were able to assert themselves. Chung Ji-young, Shin Seung-soo, Jang Gil-soo, Hah Myung-joong and Park Chul-soo represented the new mainstream. The generation change was completed by the new directors Jang Sun-woo , Park Kwang-su , Lee Myung-se and Park Chong-won. Your independent productions testified to the activism of the time, which addressed social problems. The cultural movement soon trumped conventional cinema with its aesthetics and was aimed more at the critical viewer and less at the pure consumer. South Korean auteur films gained increasing attention at international film festivals and their style was dubbed Korean New Wave . In 1987, Im Kwon-taek was able to make South Korean cinema a success with The Surrogate Mother. The leading actress Kang Soo-yeon was named Best Actress for her performance at the 44th Venice Film Festival .

According to Sangjoon Lee, South Korean cinema achieved international recognition at this time. According to his research, South Korean films were previously hardly known in the western world and there was also no academic discussion of South Korean cinema. The Hawaii International Film Festival , founded in 1981, and the East-West Film Journal , both of which have focused on understanding Asian films in the West, played a major role in the popularity of South Korean films. Film scholar Isolde Standish wrote one of the first academic observations of South Korean cinema for the journal, describing a Korean New Wave as a revolt against traditional conventions and political censorship. The year 1984 can be seen as the beginning of international attention, when Im Kwon-taeks Mandala (1981) and Lee Doo- yong Mulleya Mulleya (1984) were invited to the Cannes International Film Festival and played in the Un Certain Regard section . In 1988 and 1989, South Korean cinema cemented its recognition as the work Why Bodhi-Dharma Set Out for the Orient? by the young director Bae Yong-kyun was awarded the Golden Leopard . The film Chilsu and Mansu , which was also critically acclaimed, was overshadowed by the success . A month earlier, Kang Soo-yeon was awarded the Moscow Acting Award for her performance in The Path of Enlightenment by Im Kwon-taek. A year earlier, Amos Vogel described Lee Jang-ho's film The Man with the Three Coffins as “the most original film” at the 1988 Berlinale . In 1994, the British film critic Tony Rayns wrote that there was hardly any other film nation that has been more innovative and surprising than South Korea over the past five years. Western films from the same period, on the other hand, appear timid.

Socially, South Korea was in a state of upheaval. After nationwide protests against the regime in June 1987 , direct, democratic presidential elections were held for the first time in the same year. Little by little the country became more democratic. This basic mood also found its way into the film industry. Despite the newly won freedoms, the new film style and the increase in domestic film productions, South Korean film initially struggled at the box office. The market share of South Korean works in cinema fell below 40% for the first time in 1987. It was the first year that foreign film companies were able to distribute their films directly in South Korea.

In 1993, Im Kwon- taeks Sopyonje - The Blind Singer, was the first film to reach over a million viewers in South Korea. The film is an adaptation of Lee Cheong-jun 's novel of the same name about the popular Korean singing style pansori . Despite its success, the box office market share of South Korean productions was only 15.9% in 1993.

The entry of South Korean conglomerates ( chaebol ) into the film industry should fundamentally change it. In the late 1980s, VCRs became an everyday item in South Korean living rooms . These were made by big companies like Samsung and Daewoo . So they invested in films that were essential for video gamers. They wanted to expand and introduced a routine of showing films first in theaters, then releasing them on videotapes and finally showing them on cable television. The investments revitalized the South Korean film industry and improved the quality of the films. In 1992, Kim Ui-seok's Marriage Story was published, which was funded by Samsung. It is the first South Korean film to be sponsored by a private company. The new source of money resulted in more complex productions. Much attention was paid to the scripts and potential audiences were interviewed. The Chaebols hired young directors and held competitions for independent productions. The way of production changed and South Korean films became increasingly popular. It was started, even fantasy , science fiction and blockbuster movies to turn. Samsung's entertainment division, in particular, is credited with having fundamentally redesigned and redesigned the way South Korean film production is based with a training center for planning and management, while universities are still focusing on directing and film theory. The entry of the chaebols is therefore given great importance in literature for the further development of South Korean cinema. They made the industry transparent and planned systematically. Samsung and Daewoo withdrew from the film industry in 1999 and 1998, respectively, as a result of the Asian crisis . But the CJ Group (Cheil Jedang), which entered the market in 1995, remained in the industry and was to shape it over the next few decades. Showbox and Lotte entered the market in 1999.

Renaissance: The Korean New Wave

The Busan Cinema Center, the main venue for the Busan International Film Festival , was inaugurated in 2011.
Cinema screens in South Korea
year Number of cinema screens
1998 507
2005 000000000001648.00000000001,648
2018 000000000003058.00000000003,058

From the shock of the market opening in 1986, South Korean cinema recovered a decade later and its market share rose from 23.1% in 1996 to over 50% in 2001. After having worked with films such as The Contact (1997) and Christmas in August ( since 1996 ) 1998) saw a clear upward trend, Kang Je-gyu's action film Shiri sparked a boom in 1999. The film was also relatively successful in the United States . In South Korea, the film hit a new box office record. The film ushered in the renaissance of South Korean cinema. In addition, the first edition of the Busan International Film Festival opened in 1996 , and over the years it has grown into the largest film festival in Asia. In 1998 Kim Dae-jung was elected president. His cultural policy included the establishment of film funding and the abolition of state film censorship.

Park Chan-wook has been one of the defining directors of South Korean cinema since 2000.

In 2000, The Song of Faithful Chunhyang by Im Kwon-taek was the first South Korean film to compete at the Cannes International Film Festival . Also, Joint Security Area was published by Park Chan-wook , who broke Shiri's attendance record. The film was about South and North Korean soldiers on the border strip and combines comedy and tragedy. In the same year the Jeonju International Film Festival was first opened by the film Waikiki Brothers from Im Soon-rye. The romantic comedy My Sassy Girl by Kwak Jae-yong also appeared , which was also internationally successful. Another action blockbuster followed the next year, Friend by Kwak Kyung-taek, which set a new audience record, even though the film was not rated for young people. Lee Chang-dong's film Oasis received the Silver Lion of Venice in 2002 , while Im Kwon-taek won an award in Cannes for best director for Im Rush of Colors and Love . At that time, South Korean films were also very successful at the box office in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and other countries.

2003 is considered one of the best for South Korean films by movie buffs. Bong Joon-ho attracted attention with his thriller Memories of Murder . Park Chan-wook released a few months later Oldboy , of the International Film Festival of Cannes in 2004 with the Grand Jury Prize was considered. Kim Ki-duk published Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter ... and Spring , which came 66th in the BBC's 2016 list of the 100 most important films of the 21st century . Jang Joon-hwan brought Save the Green Planet! a cult film out and Kim Jee-woon achieved a milestone in Korean horror film with A Tale of Two Sisters . At the end of the year, Kang Woo-suk's war film Silmido was released , which reached over 11 million viewers in South Korea's cinemas. This record was broken only a short time later by the film Brotherhood - When Brothers Must Shoot Each Other (2004). It was possible to produce high-quality films with a relatively low budget, which achieved great success at the box offices and at film festivals. With fresh ideas and a feel for the present, demanding and controversial films that have shown millions of people in the cinemas arrive. In February 2004 Kim Ki-duk won the award for best director at the 54th Berlinale for his film Samaria . Kim Ki-duk and Hong Sang-soo are considered to be excellent auteur filmmakers who cause a sensation at film festivals around the world, but who generate only low box office sales. In 2004, Kim's film Bin-Jip received the FIPRESCI Prize from Venice and finally the award for best film of the year . At that time, the Korean New Wave was on everyone's lips internationally. A new style of film and a film movement that brought a breath of fresh air to film festivals around the world and linked to the Nouvelle Vague , the New American Cinema and the Hong Kong New Wave.

While South Korean cinema was developing rapidly, Japanese horror cinema gained popularity in Western countries in the late 1990s, led by psychological horror films such as Ring (1998). American remakes followed. In 2003, a year after the remake of The Ring , the South Korean horror films Into the Mirror and A Tale of Two Sisters were released, they were seen as the next big trend. Both films received American remakes in 2008 and 2009, respectively. While the West predominantly imported horror films from South Korea, South Korean cinema itself remained diverse. At the end of the 2000s, however, after several failures, fewer horror films were made, as national and international interest was exhausted. However, the K-Horror genre was later strengthened again with Train to Busan and The Wailing (2016) and Gonjiam: Haunted Asylum (2018).

In 2006, Bong Joon-ho set a new cinema record with his genre mix The Host , selling over 13 million cinema tickets for the film. The 10 million mark went from a one-time milestone to a simple yardstick of commercial success. The South Korean film industry has expanded thematically in these years and produced films in numerous different genres, from horror to art house, action and love films a wide range was covered. From 1996 to 2005, the number of movie theaters in South Korea increased from 511 to 1648. In the same period, the export of South Korean film productions rose from 400,000 US dollars to 76 million US dollars. With the television series A Star in My Heart ( 별 은 내 가슴 에 ), the phenomenon of the Korean wave began to become visible in China in 1997 , the worldwide success of South Korean cultural exports. While Korean drama series are the origin of the phenomenon, the South Korean film began to be included due to the growing sales.

Development after the reduction in the cinema quota

While the import quota dropped in the 1980s, the playing quota for South Korean films remained unchanged, with 146 days per year from 1985. In 2006 the number of days that cinemas have to show domestic film productions was halved to 73 days. This quota is different from 1966. Only South Korean films are allowed to be shown on each screen for 1/5 (up to 2006 2/5) of the anniversaries. According to Jimmyn Parc, the screen quota is just a paper tiger anyway , since although South Korean productions are guaranteed a certain running time in the cinema, there is no guarantee that the population will eventually watch the films. Following his remarks, this quota had little influence on the development of South Korean films. The regulation was also not strictly enforced and some cinemas are said to have violated it.

Also Independent productions were able to celebrate successes, both at international film festivals and in theaters. In 2008 the independent documentary Old Partner reached almost 3 million moviegoers. In the same year, the successful action film The Chaser , based on a real serial killer, was released and helped director Na Hong-jin and the two main actors Kim Yoon-seok and Ha Jung-woo to their big breakthrough. In some internationally successful films from the beginnings of the Korean New Wave, police officers are portrayed as corrupt, unjust, incompetent and violent. The reasons lie in the decades of dictatorship and censorship. After the democratization, the filmmakers were able to describe their point of view and express their anger. In The Chaser , it is the incompetence of the cops that allows the serial killer to keep killing. In the 2010s, however, more action films and thrillers were made in which police officers are portrayed as heroic, such as in Hollywood films .

According to Fritz Göttler from the Süddeutsche Zeitung , South Korean cinema, as a new “creative force” and “innovation spin”, “brought a lot of excitement, excitement [and] enthusiasm” to the world in the previous decade. In 2014, the journalist Jan Küveler von der Welt called South Korean cinema the “best cinema in the world”. The films have "purposefulness, doubt, harshness, love, no trace of vanity, the style straightforward, expression without further ado, the nimble elegance of the Nouvelle Vague and the brutal directness of American thrillers of the seventies". American director Martin Scorsese wrote that Korean cinema was slowly reaching him without warning. He was almost absorbed by Korean film and is following its development. Directors such as Hong Sang-soo, Lee Chang-dong, Bong Joon-ho and Park Chan-wook as well as their directing colleagues are true cultural ambassadors. Darcy Paquet wrote: “One could argue that the current boom in Korean cinema is less of an exceptional circumstance than its natural state. Since the dawn of Korean cinema, it has been hampered by Japan's colonization, national division, the Korean War, authoritarian military regimes, censorship and anti-competitive regulations. It wasn't until the 1990s that Korean cinema enjoyed a supportive government, a stable economy, and sensible film policy. ”One can only hope that Korean cinema will never experience such extreme disturbances again.

In 2010 CJ CGV introduced the new 4DX technology and Haunters released the first 4DX film. The picture is in 3D, the seats also move, scents are sprayed in and wind and water are used for appropriate scenes. In 2012, Kim Ki-duk became the first Korean filmmaker to receive the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Pieta . In 2013 the internationally well-known directors Park Chan-wook , Kim Jee-woon and Bong Joon-ho released their first English language films through Stoker , The Last Stand and Snowpiercer .

In 2014 the historical epic The Admiral - Roaring Currents was published , in which Choi Min-sik embodies the navigator Yi Sun-shin . The film is about the naval battle of Myongnyang , in which Yi Sun-shin defeated the Japanese fleet of 330 ships with twelve ships and thus averted the invasion of Japan. The film reached over 17.6 million admissions and is thus at the top of the admissions figures in South Korea. In the same year, the film Ode to My Father reached more than 14 million viewers. The film tells the story of South Korea from the Korean War to 2014 on the life of a man.

In 2016 there was a corruption scandal involving President Park Geun-hye and her impeachment, which also led to the existence of a culture-related blacklist . On this there were left-wing artists, or some who made fun of the president. People on the blacklist should not receive financial support for their productions. Actor Song Kang-ho made the list for his role as human rights attorney in the 2013 movie The Attorney . Some filmmakers have had difficulties with their productions and their funding. There were 9,473 people on the list.

In the mid- 2010s , South Korean webtoons gained popularity around the world. Numerous Manhwa and Webtoons had already been adapted for cinema, but at this time Webtoons established themselves as templates for South Korean cinemas, similar to Marvel and DC Comics established themselves as material suppliers for American cinema. In 2015, the Webtoon film adaptation Inside Men - Revenge of Justice was released , which became the most successful film without a youth rating in South Korean cinema history with over 9.1 million tickets sold. The most successful Webtoon film adaptation is the fantasy adventure Along with the Gods: The Two Worlds (2017) by Kim Yong-hwa with over 14 million moviegoers. The #MeToo movement also found its way into South Korean cinema. Accusations were made against director Kim Ki-duk and against actors Cho Jae-hyun , Oh Dal-soo and Jo Min-ki . The latter committed suicide after the allegations suicide . Oh Dal-soo was replaced in the sequel Along with the Gods: The Last 49 Days (2018) and some films with him that had already been shot have been postponed indefinitely. A center for equality in Korean film has been set up by the state, which actresses can turn to. The film Kim Ji-young, Born 1982 with Jung Yu-mi in the leading role met with a lot of media interest . It is the film adaptation of a successful feminist novel published in 2016 .

Bong Joon-ho's film Parasite won the Palme d'Or and the Academy Award .

In 2018, Lee Chang-dong's Burning received a lot of attention at the Cannes Film Festival and achieved a new record in the critics' survey by Screen International magazine with 3.8 out of 4 possible points. Katja Nicodemus von der Zeit spoke of one of “the best films of all time”. The film received the FIPRESCI award . A year later, the film was Parasite by Bong Joon-ho as the first Korean film with the Palme d'Or as well as the Golden Globe as best foreign language film award. In addition, Parasite was the first non-English language work to receive the Oscar for best film . Pascal Blum from the Tages-Anzeiger described South Korea as an "originality catapult" in the course of the publication of Parasite . South Korea managed a film miracle and produces the best thrillers. The two aforementioned films - together with The Pickpocket by Park Chan-wook and Train to Busan by Yeon Sang-ho , both of which premiered at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival - are among the most successful South Korean films of recent years (since 2016 ). For example, all four films are among the five most successful Korean films of all time in France. It was there that Parasite became the first South Korean film to have over a million admissions.

After 2019 was one of the most successful years for South Korean film, with over 226 million admissions, the awards for Parasite and the centenary of Korean cinema, the development in the beginning of 2020 from March onwards was restrained due to the global COVID-19 pandemic . The cinemas were closed for some time and numerous film releases were postponed as a result. When the situation improved significantly from the end of April, the cinemas gradually opened again.

Production, sales and cinemas

Market share of cinema operators
in South Korea in 2018
Cinema chain Market share
CJ CGV 49.3%
Lotte Cinema 28.9%
Megabox 18.7%

The South Korean film market is described as an oligopoly because there are few vertically integrated companies that dominate it. The four companies CJ ENM , Lotte Cultureworks , Showbox and Next Entertainment World divide the film distribution among themselves, while the multiplex operators CJ CGV , Lotte Cinema and Megabox control the cinema market. CJ and Lotte are among the largest South Korean conglomerates ( jaebol ) . CJ ENM and CJ CGV are subsidiaries of this group. CJ ENM is South Korea's largest entertainment media company active in film, television, music and gaming . Lotte Cultureworks operates the distribution label Lotte Entertainment and the cinema chain Lotte Cinema. These companies cover the entire value chain of the film industry from production and distribution to the display of the works in cinemas . The production company Showbox and the cinema chain Megabox both go back to the Orion group . Megabox founded its own production studio called Megabox PlusM. Furthermore, the exploiter Next Entertainment World started the cinema chain Cine Q in 2017.

In 2012, the American film company 20th Century Fox got involved in the production of South Korean films, starting with Running Man (2013). In 2016 Warner Bros. entered the South Korean market and celebrated a great success with The Age of Shadows (2016) by Kim Jee-woon , as the film generated 7.5 million admissions. Jay Choi of Warner Bros. commented on the reasons for the entry, that South Korea is one of the largest cinema markets and one in which domestic productions achieve higher sales than Hollywood films. In addition, South Korean films are highly regarded and feature original and creative stories. South Korea is also an important market for the American streaming provider Netflix . The company repeatedly secures the worldwide streaming rights to some South Korean films, but has also started to finance films in advance. 2017 funded Netflix movie Okja by Bong Joon-ho . Films are also produced for South Korean web platforms.

South Korean films are very popular and successful in China . In the 2010s, South Korean actors were increasingly hired for Chinese productions. Some of the films were shot in South Korea, such as Bad Guys Always Die . In addition, South Korean visual effects companies and DI participated in the post-production of various Chinese films. The Busan-based company AZ Works took care of the effects of Tsui Hark's Detective Dee and the Secret of the Phantom Flames (2010), for which it received the Hong Kong Film Award . In addition, some studios entered into partnerships. However, the relationship between South Korea and China deteriorated when the South Korean government approved the construction of the US military's THAAD missile defense system . This led de facto to a ban on the importation of South Korean films. No South Korean productions appeared in Chinese cinemas for about two years. With Huayi Brothers , however, a large Chinese film studio also entered the South Korean production market. The company includes the film company Merry Christmas, founded in 2018. Dexter Studios, founded by director Kim Yong-hwa , initially focused on visual effects and CGI . However, the company expanded into film financing and distribution. Furthermore, the production company Little Big Pictures was created in 2013 through the cooperation of ten smaller film studios - such as Myung Films, Chungeorahm Film, JupiterFilm and Filmmaker R & K.

According to Dal Yong Jin (2020), American films benefit greatly from the oligipole of the South Korean film market. This oligopoly means that few films are shown on most cinema screens. The increase in movie theaters did not result in a variety of films; instead, blockbusters are shown almost everywhere. And American productions in particular received the greatest number of canvases. Captain America: Civil War (2016) was shown on 1991 from 2575 screens. This is a danger for cultural films such as art house and auteur films, since mainly commercial films are shown in the cinema. This is also criticized by some filmmakers, such as Kim Ki-duk .

Independent films

While the film landscape was dominated by a few companies due to state influence and censorship, after liberalization and the elimination of producer registration in the mid-1980s, independent films could be made. One of the first independent films was Oh, Dream Nation (1988) about the Gwangju massacre that occurred in 1980. After Kim Young-jin, the film had a significant impact on the production of other independent films. Building on the success, the group Jangsangotmae, which also produced Oh, Dream Nation , made the 1990 film Night before the Strike about the efforts of the working class under capitalism . In South Korea, the Jeongdongjin Independent Film Festival, the Seoul Independent Film Festival and the Busan International Film Festival offer young, aspiring directors the opportunity to present their films. The Wildflower Film Awards ( 들꽃 영화상 ), established by film critic and translator Darcy Paquet , have been honoring the best independent achievements every year since 2014. The independent film is supported, among others, by the Association of Korean Independent Film & Video ( 한국 독립 영화 협회 ). In the 21st century, South Korean independent cinema enjoyed international success. Breathless ( 똥파리 , 2008) by Yang Ik-june is about child abuse and usury and received the Silver Screen Awards of the Singapore International Film Festival and the Tiger of Rotterdam . The black and white film Jiseul , released in 2012, was partly financed by crowdfunding and was the first South Korean film to win the Grand Jury Prize at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival . Han Gong-ju (2014) was awarded the main prizes at the Marrakech and Rotterdam Film Festivals. The film gave actress Chun Woo-hee her big break in Korean cinema. House of Hummingbird (2018) was able to collect 25 prizes during its festival round from October 2018 to August 2019, including the NETPAC Prize at the Busan Film Festival, the Grand Prize of the International Jury in the Generation 14plus category at the Berlinale and the Golden Tulip from Istanbul .

Director Park Suk-young celebrated success for his Flower Trilogy, which are independent films and about teenagers in crisis. In all three films the main role is played by Jeong Ha-dam . Independent films cover different topics. The Journals of Musan (2014) by Park Jung-bum describes the life of a North Korean refugee in South Korea and his difficulties in finding a job, discrimination and poverty. Dohee - Anyone Can Run Away (2014) by July Jung and Miss Baek (2018) by Lee Ji-won deal with child abuse and are dominated by female roles.

K horror

The term K-Horror refers to South Korean horror films and established itself when the Korean horror film became popular worldwide in the late 1990s. Successful horror films developed together with the Korean New Wave. Released in 1998, Whispering Corridors is the first horror film in the new South Korean cinema. Director Park Ki-hyeong based his work on Italian horror films from the 1970s and 1980s. The film is about schoolgirls who are bullied and abused by their teachers and thus has a direct socio-cultural component. The success led to the production of other films of a similar design. Unlike Japan, which focused heavily on the horror genre after the success of Ring , South Korean cinema began to cover a wide range of genres and topics in the wake of the New Wave. But at the beginning of the 2000s, horror productions in particular enjoyed great popularity abroad among South Korean films.

The horror films mostly deal with social problems. Pechmann (2015) argues that the films make use of the fear “of the foreign, the other and the unfamiliar”. In South Korean productions, the "other is not what we perceive directly, so no serial killer, no ghost, no monster, but what is associated with these respective characters". According to Pechmann, the other is "located on a higher and more abstract level". This does not make Korean horror films easy to understand. In Whispering Corridors, for example, there is a painting in the classroom of the historical figure Shin Saimdang , who is considered the mother of Korea and is taught as the ideal of femininity in girls' schools. At the end of the film, the portrait is covered in blood with the bloody tears of the ghost Jinju as she leaves school - according to Jinhee Choi (2011) a symbol that the outdated icon no longer has any meaning for the young adolescents in modern South Korea. The horror films are supposed to shake up the audience that society is still far from ideal. In addition, the horror films make use of urban legends and traditional folklore. Furthermore, the most common narrative style in Korean cinema is melodrama , largely due to the legacy of shinpa . Shinpa is a Japanese form of theater that came to Korea during the colonial era. These were tragic stories full of pessimism and an inevitable sad ending. Korean horror films usually don't have a happy ending . The end of the film is usually not scary, but sad. The viewer is confronted with the truth and feels sadness and despair.

A Tale of Two Sisters (2003) by Kim Jee-woon is a milestone in Korean horror cinema . South Korean horror films are also often mixed with other genres. Kim's The Quiet Family (1998) is a tragic comedy with horror elements, while I Saw the Devil (2010) is a horror thriller. The films Bedevilled (2008) and Oldboy can also be classified as horror thrillers . The film Ghosts of War (2004) combines the horrors of war with horror elements. The multi-layered monster film The Host combines various genres and topics. The film Spellbound , released in 2011, mixes the genres of romance, comedy and horror. This mix of genres creates a contrast that one moment you feel like you are watching a romantic comedy and the next moment you are brought back into horror. South Korean horror films are very cheeky and harsh and encourage disturbing scenes. The comedic scenes are intended to distract the viewer in order to later confront him with the horror unprepared.

If supernatural beings appear in horror films, they are usually traditionally Korean ones such as Gumiho and Gwisin (ghost). However, Park Chan-wook released a vampire film with Thirst in 2009 . In addition, the 2016 zombie film Train to Busan became the most successful South Korean horror film. In the same year the film was The Wailing of Na Hong-jin , who is known for his acclaimed thriller published. In the film, Na takes on supernatural elements of different faiths. Supernatural forces such as ghosts also often serve as a distraction. The viewer is supposed to focus on this obvious danger and does not recognize what is actually going on.

While the South Korean horror cinema was only known internationally under the term "K-Horror" since the late 1990s, the story is much longer. In 1924 Park Jung-hyun published the ghost fable Janghwa Hongryeon jeon , based on the old folk tale of the same name. However, under Japanese rule (1910–1945), South Korean cinema could hardly develop. It was not until the 1960 film Hanyo - The Housemaid by Kim Ki-young that the beginnings of the modern Korean horror film were assigned. It is one of the most influential films in South Korea and has some horror elements in it. Shin Sang-ok published The Thousand Year Old Fox in 1969 , in which he takes the form of Gumiho: a nine-tailed fox, usually female, who can take on human form.

Audience approval

Market share of South Korean films
in admissions in South Korea
year Total cinema visits
, in million 		Market share of
South Korean films
2012 194.9 58.8%
2013 213.4 59.7%
2014 215.1 50.1%
2015 217.3 52.0%
2016 217.0 53.7%
2017 219.9 51.8%
2018 216.4 50.9%
2019 226.7 51.0%

South Korea is one of the few countries in which domestic film productions regularly achieve a market share of over 50%. In 1986 the import quota for foreign films was lifted under pressure from the United States. Compared to other countries that eliminated their quotas, the market share of domestic films in South Korea grew after a brief slump, while it shrank in Mexico and Taiwan . According to Chuck Stephens of Film Comment , in 2001 South Korea became the first country to recapture its film market from Hollywood and see a great renewal. In 2013 , there were over 200 million moviegoers in South Korea for the first time. The share of domestic film productions was 59.1 percent that year, the second-highest share after 63 percent, which had been achieved in 2006. South Korea is one of the countries where people go to the cinema the most: with 216.4 million admissions for a population of around 50 million, the average rate is more than four admissions per capita annually. In 2013, South Korea had 4.25 admissions per inhabitant, higher than in any other country in that year.

List of the most successful films

(Status: October 2019, sorted by number of visitors)

  1. The Admiral - Roaring Currents ( 명량 ) - 17,614,590 (2014)
  2. Extreme Job ( 극한 직업 ) - 16,265,094 (2019)
  3. Along with the Gods: The Two Worlds ( 신과 함께: 죄 와 벌 ) - 14,411,708 (2017)
  4. Ode to My Father ( 국제 시장 ) - 14,254,955 (2014)
  5. Veteran - Above the Law ( 베테랑 ) - 13,414,200 (2015)
  6. The Host ( 괴물 ) - 13,019,000 (2006)
  7. The Thieves ( 도둑 들 ) - 12,983,005 (2012)
  8. Miracle in Cell No. 7 ( 7 번방 의 선물 ) - 12,803,485 (2013)
  9. Assassination ( 암살 ) - 12,706,819 (2015)
  10. Masquerade ( 광해, 왕 이 된 남자 ) - 12,321,459 (2012)
  11. The King and the Clown ( 왕 의 남자 ) - 12,302,831 (2005)
  12. Along with the Gods: The Last 49 Days ( 신과 함께: 인과 연 ) - 12,273,696 (2018)
  13. A Taxi Driver ( 택시 운전사 ) - 12,189,436 (2017)
  14. Brotherhood - When brothers must shoot at each other ( 태극기 휘날리며 ) - 11,746,135 (2004)
  15. Train to Busan ( 부산행 ) - 11,566,874 (2016)
  16. The Attorney ( 변호인 ) - 11,374,861 (2013)
  17. Tsunami - The Wave of Death ( 해운대 ) - 11,324,791 (2009)
  18. Silmido ( 실미도 ) - 11,108,000 (2003)
  19. Parasite ( 기생충 ) - 10,083,179 (2019)
  20. A Violent Prosecutor ( 검사 외전 ) - 9,707,581 (2016)

Film festivals

Lee Kyeong-yeong and Lee Sang-ah on the red carpet of the Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival 2017.

The Busan International Film Festival (BIFF) is the most popular film festival in Asia and one of the most important. When it was founded in 1996, it developed alongside the Korean New Wave . The festival is accredited by FIAPF and specializes in Asian cinema. In 2018 the film festival had around 195,000 visitors. The Jeonju International Film Festival , which takes place annually in May, enjoys an excellent reputation within South Korea, is a support for South Korea's art house cinema and the screenings are mostly sold out. 1997 saw the start of the Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival , South Korea's largest genre film festival . The three festivals are widely considered to be the three most important film festivals in South Korea.

Film awards

Kim Tae-ri with the Blue Dragon Award (2016)

The most important awards are considered to be the Blue Dragon Award and the Daejong Film Prize . The Daejong Film Prize was established in 1962 by the Ministry of Culture and Information . As a state-sponsored award, the award was also part of the government's propaganda during the military dictatorship. For some time, the award for the best film in the anti-communism category was awarded. As the oldest still existing film award, the Daejong Award is still considered prestigious. The Blue Dragon Awards were founded in 1963 by the conservative newspaper Chosun Ilbo , but ended again in the 1970s. The subsidiary newspaper Sports Chosun revived the award in the 1990s. The Baeksang Arts Award, a prize for film and television similar to the American Golden Globes, is also known . In the course of the Busan International Film Festival, some prizes that are independent of the film festival itself are awarded, such as the Busan Film Critics Awards.

Film awards

movie Award Korean Affiliation Grant time
Daejong Film Awards 대종상 영화제 The Motion Pictures Association of Korea November
Blue Dragon Awards 청룡 영화상 Sports Chosun December
Baeksang Arts Awards 백상 예술 대상 Ilgan Sports April May
Buil Film Awards 부일 영화상 Busan Ilbo October
Busan Film Critics Awards 부산 영화 평론가 협회 상 Busan Film Critics Association October
Wildflower Film Awards 들꽃 영화상 Wildflower Film Awards Korea April
Korean Association of Film Critics Awards 한국 영화 평론가 협회 상 Korean Association of Film Critics (KAFC) October November
Director's Cut Awards 디렉터스 컷 시상식 Korea Film Director's Network December
Chunsa Film Art Awards 춘사 대상 영화제 Korea Film Directors' Society April May

literature

  • Kim Mee-hyun (Ed.): Korean Cinema. From Origins to Renaissance . Korean Film Council, Seoul 2007, ISBN 978-89-8499-703-5 ( download ).
  • Jinhee Choi: The South Korean Film Renaissance: Local Hitmakers, Global Provocateurs . Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 2010, ISBN 978-0-8195-6986-8 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  • Kyung Hyun Kim: Virtual Hallyu: Korean Cinema of the Global Era . Duke University Press, Durham 2011, ISBN 978-0-8223-9460-0 .
  • SooJeong Ahn: The Pusan ​​International Film Festival, South Korean Cinema and Globalization . Hong Kong University Press, Hong Kong 2011, ISBN 978-988-8083-58-9 ( limited preview in Google Book Search).
  • Alison Peirse & Daniel Martin (Eds.): Korean Horror Cinema . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2013, ISBN 978-0-7486-7767-2 .
  • Brian Yecies, Aegyung Shim: The Changing Face of Korean Cinema. 1960 to 2015 . Routledge, London 2015, ISBN 978-1-315-88664-0 , doi : 10.4324 / 9781315886640 .
  • Dal Yong Jin: Transnational Korean Cinema. Cultural Politics, Film Genres, and Digital Technologies . Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick 2020, ISBN 978-1-978807-88-4 .

Web links

Commons : Cinema of South Korea  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Feature films: Exhibition - Admissions & gross box office (GBO). In: UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 2017, accessed on August 5, 2019 .
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g Lee Sun-young: Did you know? Five facts about Korean cinema. In: The Korea Herald . May 31, 2019, accessed June 15, 2019 .
  3. ↑ Lee Hyo-won: CJ CGV's 4DX Theater Exports Surpass $ 10 Million in One Year. In: The Hollywood Reporter . September 12, 2013, accessed September 15, 2018 .
  4. ↑ Axel Schwarz: All-round screen and special effects: This is how the Cinestar in Kassel is changing. In: Hessische / Niedersächsische Allgemeine . July 2, 2019, accessed July 4, 2019 .
  5. ^ Byun Young-joo: Foreword . In: Brian Yecies, Aegyung Shim (Ed.): The Changing Face of Korean Cinema. 1960 to 2015 . Routledge, London 2015, ISBN 978-1-315-88664-0 , pp. XXII , doi : 10.4324 / 9781315886640 .
  6. ↑ Busan. In: Creative Cities Network. Retrieved June 25, 2019 .
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  9. ↑ Brian Yecies, Aegyung Shim: The Changing Face of Korean Cinema. 1960 to 2015 . 1st edition. Routledge, London 2015, ISBN 978-1-315-88664-0 , pp. 2 , doi : 10.4324 / 9781315886640 .
  10. ^ Kim Jong-won: The Exhibition of Moving Pictures and the Advent of Korean Cinema . In: Kim Mee-hyun (ed.): Korean Cinema. From Origins to Renaissance . Korean Film Council, Seoul 2007, ISBN 978-89-8499-703-5 , pp. 17 ( download ).
  11. ↑ Film industry holds seminar in the run-up to the centenary of Korean cinema. In: KBS World. October 27, 2018, accessed July 12, 2019 .
  12. ^ Sonia Kil: South Korea Celebrates 100 Years of Cinema. In: Variety . May 13, 2019, accessed June 30, 2019 .
  13. ↑ Brian Yecies, Ae-Gyung Shim: Korea's Occupied Cinemas, 1893-1948: The Untold History of the Movie Industry . Routledge, New York 2011, ISBN 978-1-136-67473-0 , pp. 68 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
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  15. ↑ a b c d Keumsil Kim Yoon, Bruce Williams: Two Lenses on the Korean Ethos: Key Cultural Concepts and Their Appearance in Cinema . McFarland, 2015, ISBN 978-1-4766-1787-9 , pp. 98 f . ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  16. ^ Hye Seung Chung: From National to Transnational: A Historiography of Korean Cinema . In: Dal Yong Jin, Nojin Kwak (eds.): Communication, Digital Media, and Popular Culture in Korea: Contemporary Research and Future Prospects . Lexington Books, 2018, ISBN 978-1-4985-6204-1 , pp. 446 f . ( limited preview in Google Book search).
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  19. ^ A b Korean Culture and Information Service (Ed.): K-Movie: The World's Spotlight on Korean Film . 1st edition. 2012, ISBN 978-89-7375-564-6 , pp. 64 ( scribd.com ).
  20. ^ Kwon Mee-yoo: Korea's oldest silent film revived. In: The Korea Times . May 30, 2012, accessed June 12, 2019 .
  21. ↑ a b c d e Cho Hye-jung: Liberation and the Korean War . In: Kim Mee-hyun (ed.): Korean Cinema. From Origins to Renaissance . Korean Film Council, Seoul 2007, ISBN 978-89-8499-703-5 , pp. 105-109 ( download ).
  22. ↑ a b What was the first Korean movie in color? In: Korean Film Archive. Retrieved June 17, 2019 .
  23. ^ A b Korean Culture and Information Service (Ed.): K-Movie: The World's Spotlight on Korean Film . 1st edition. 2012, ISBN 978-89-7375-564-6 , pp. 66 ( scribd.com ).
  24. ↑ a b c d Oh Young-sook: The Revival of the Film Industry . In: Kim Mee-hyun (ed.): Korean Cinema. From Origins to Renaissance . Korean Film Council, Seoul 2007, ISBN 978-89-8499-703-5 , pp. 133-136 ( download ).
  25. ^ A b c Korean Culture and Information Service (Ed.): K-Movie: The World's Spotlight on Korean Film . 1st edition. 2012, ISBN 978-89-7375-564-6 , pp. 65 ( scribd.com ).
  26. ^ A b Korean Culture and Information Service (Ed.): K-Movie: The World's Spotlight on Korean Film . 1st edition. 2012, ISBN 978-89-7375-564-6 , pp. 67 ( scribd.com ).
  27. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Brian Yecies, Ae-Gyung Shim: Power of the Korean Film Producer: Park Chung Hee's Forgotten Film Cartel of the 1960s Golden Decade and its Legacy . In: The Asia-Pacific Journal . tape 10 , no. 3 , December 24, 2012 ( full access ).
  28. ^ Darcy Paquet: New Korean Cinema: Breaking the Waves . 1st edition. Columbia University Press, New York City 2010, ISBN 978-0-231-85012-4 , pp. 2 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  29. ^ A b c d Brian M. Yecies: Parleying Culture Against Trade: Hollywood's Affairs With Korea's Screen Quotas . In: University of Wollongong . 2007 ( edu.au [PDF]).
  30. ↑ 영화 법. In: law.go.kr. September 3, 1966, accessed September 20, 2019 (Korean, Korean Films Act 1966, Article 19).
  31. ↑ 영화 법 시행령. In: law.go.kr. December 27, 1966, accessed September 20, 2019 (Korean, The Korean Film Act 1966 Decree, Article 25).
  32. ↑ a b c d Kim Mee-hyun: The Korean Cinema Renaissance and Genre Films . In: Kim Mee-hyun (ed.): Korean Cinema. From Origins to Renaissance . Korean Film Council, Seoul 2007, ISBN 978-89-8499-703-5 , pp. 171-176 ( download ).
  33. ^ A b Korea Motion Picture Promotion Corporation (1977): Korean Film Source Handbook. From Initial Stage to 1976. Seoul. Quoted from Dal Yong Jin: Transnational Korean Cinema. Cultural Politics, Film Genres, and Digital Technologies . Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick 2020, ISBN 978-1-978807-88-4 , pp. 21 .
  34. ^ Korean Culture and Information Service (Ed.): K-Movie: The World's Spotlight on Korean Film . 1st edition. 2012, ISBN 978-89-7375-564-6 , pp. 67 f . ( scribd.com ).
  35. ↑ a b c d e f g Byun In-shik: The Authoritarian Period and a Depression in the Film Industry . In: Kim Mee-hyun (ed.): Korean Cinema. From Origins to Renaissance . Korean Film Council, Seoul 2007, ISBN 978-89-8499-703-5 , pp. 223-229 ( download ).
  36. ^ Seung Hyun Park: Korean Cinema after Liberation: Production, Industry, and Regulatory Trend . In: Frances Gateward (Ed.): Seoul Searching: Culture and Identity in Contemporary Korean Cinema . SUNY Press, New York City 2007, ISBN 978-0-7914-7933-9 , pp. 18 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  37. ^ Molly Hyo Kim: Film Censorship Policy During Park Chung Hee's Military Regime (1960-1979) and Hostess Films . In: IAFOR Journal of Cultural Studies . tape 1 , no. 2 , 2016, p. 40 ( iafor.org [PDF]).
  38. ^ A b Michael Kienzl: Rebellion within strict rules. "The Darkest Decade": South Korean cinema of the 1970s. In: critic.de. May 2, 2012, accessed June 2, 2019 .
  39. ↑ a b c d e Su-Jin Cho: Female characters in contemporary Korean films in relation to the social context . Erlangen 2006, p. 43 f . (Dissertation).
  40. ↑ a b c d e f Molly Hyo Kim: Film Censorship Policy During Park Chung Hee's Military Regime (1960-1979) and Hostess Films . In: IAFOR Journal of Cultural Studies . tape 1 , no. 2 , 2016, p. 38 f . ( iafor.org [PDF]).
  41. ^ Molly Hyo Kim: Film Censorship Policy During Park Chung Hee's Military Regime (1960-1979) and Hostess Films . In: IAFOR Journal of Cultural Studies . tape 1 , no. 2 , 2016, p. 45 f . ( iafor.org [PDF]).
  42. ^ Molly Hyo Kim: Film Censorship Policy During Park Chung Hee's Military Regime (1960-1979) and Hostess Films . In: IAFOR Journal of Cultural Studies . tape 1 , no. 2 , 2016, p. 47 f . ( iafor.org [PDF]).
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  91. ↑ Kim Hye-seon: Burning Wins the Hearts of the French Audience . In: Korean Cinema Today . tape 32 , October 2018, p. 4 (English, download [PDF; 88.5 MB ; accessed on April 28, 2019]).
    1. Parasite : 1.8 million + ( http://www.jpbox-office.com/fichfilm.php?id=19435 )
    2. Snowpiercer : 678.049 ( http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20190624000774 )
    3. Train to Busan : 306,148 viewers ( http://lumiere.obs.coe.int/web/film_info/?id=68304 )
    4. The pickpocket : 271,932 viewers ( http://lumiere.obs.coe.int/web/film_info/?id=68307 )
    5. Burning : 190,664 viewers ( http://lumiere.obs.coe.int/web/film_info/?id=78007 )
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  99. ↑ Brian Yecies, Aegyung Shim: The Changing Face of Korean Cinema. 1960 to 2015 . 1st edition. Routledge, London 2015, ISBN 978-1-315-88664-0 , pp. 159 , doi : 10.4324 / 9781315886640 .
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  125. ↑ a b c Max Pechmann: J-Horror and K-Horror or the other in Asian horror cinema . In: Michael Dellwing, Martin Harbusch (Hrsg.): Vergemeinschaftung in times of the zombie apocalypse . tape 1 . Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2015, ISBN 978-3-658-01722-4 , p. 325 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-01722-4_14 .
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  127. ↑ Max Pechmann: J-Horror and K-Horror or the other in Asian horror cinema . In: Michael Dellwing, Martin Harbusch (Hrsg.): Vergemeinschaftung in times of the zombie apocalypse . tape 1 . Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2015, ISBN 978-3-658-01722-4 , p. 328 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-01722-4_14 .
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