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{{Short description|Species of insect}} |
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{{Taxobox |
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{{Speciesbox |
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| image = Clitarchus hookeri |
| image = Clitarchus hookeri 61341021.jpg |
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| image_caption = |
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| genus = Clitarchus |
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| phylum = [[Arthropoda]] |
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| classis = [[Insecta]] |
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| ordo = [[Phasmatodea]] |
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| subordo = [[Verophasmatodea]] |
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| genus = ''[[Clitarchus (insect)|Clitarchus]]'' |
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| binomial = ''Clitarchus hookeri'' |
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| synonyms = |
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'''''Clitarchus hookeri''''', is a [[stick insect]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Phasmatidae]], [[endemism|endemic]] to [[New Zealand]]. It is possibly New Zealand's most common stick insect. ''Clitarchus hookeri'' is often green in appearance, but can also be brown or red in |
'''''Clitarchus hookeri''''', is a [[stick insect]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Phasmatidae]], [[endemism|endemic]] to [[New Zealand]]. It is possibly New Zealand's most common stick insect. ''Clitarchus hookeri'' is often green in appearance, but can also be brown or red. Alongside the [[Acanthoxyla prasina|prickly stick insect]] and the [[Acanthoxyla inermis|Unarmed stick insect]], ''C. hookeri'' is one of three stick insect species to have become naturalised in [[Great Britain]], with all three having originated in New Zealand. |
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==Description== |
==Description== |
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[[File:Clitarchus hookeri male.jpg|left|thumb|Male ''Clitarchus hookeri'']] |
[[File:Clitarchus hookeri male.jpg|left|thumb|Male ''Clitarchus hookeri'']] |
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[[File:Clitarchus hookeri female.jpg|left|thumb|Female ''Clitarchus hookeri'']] |
[[File:Clitarchus hookeri female.jpg|left|thumb|Female ''Clitarchus hookeri'']] |
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''Clitarchus hookeri'' is a large stick insect. This species demonstrates [[sexual dimorphism]]. Female specimens grow from 81 |
''Clitarchus hookeri'' is a large stick insect. This species demonstrates [[sexual dimorphism]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Nakano|first1=Mari|last2=Morgan-Richards|first2=Mary|last3=Godfrey|first3=A. Jonathan R.|last4=Clavijo McCormick|first4=Andrea|date=2019-07-10|title=Parthenogenetic Females of the Stick Insect Clitarchus hookeri Maintain Sexual Traits|journal=Insects|language=en|volume=10|issue=7|pages=202|doi=10.3390/insects10070202|pmid=31295894|pmc=6681278|issn=2075-4450|doi-access=free}}</ref> Female specimens grow from 81 – 106 mm and males from 67 – 74 mm.<ref name="terrain">{{cite web|title=Stick Insect (Clitarchus hookeri) Green form|url=http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/local-insects/common-stick-insect.html|website=T.E.R.R.A.I.N|publisher=Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network|access-date=2 September 2017}}</ref> The colour can be variable, even in the same location, ranging from bright green to grey, brown or buff.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/science/plants-animals-fungi/animals/invertebrates/systematics/phasmatodea/classification/clitarchus|title=Clitarchus|publisher=Landcare Research|access-date=2012-12-13}}</ref><ref name="parthenogenesis">{{cite journal|last1=Stringer|first1=Ian A. N.|last2=Morgan-Richards|first2=Mary|last3=Trewick|first3=Steve A.|title=Geographic parthenogenesis and the common tea-tree stick insect of New Zealand|journal=Molecular Ecology|date=2010|volume=19|issue=6|pages=1227–1238|doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04542.x|pmid=20163549|s2cid=25972583|url=http://evolves.massey.ac.nz/PDFs/Morgan-Richards%20et%20al.%202010%20GeoParthenogenesis.pdf|access-date=2 September 2017}}</ref> Colour variation is thought to be genetic not environmentally determined.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colour change stick insects – Te Taha Tawhiti |url=https://sites.massey.ac.nz/phoenixlab/2023/04/09/colour-change-stick-insects/ |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=sites.massey.ac.nz |language=en-NZ}}</ref> Unlike many tropical stick insects, ''Clitarchus hookeri'' is flightless.<ref name="tuatara">{{cite journal|last1=Salmon|first1=J. T.|title=Stick Insects|journal=Tuatara|date=March 1955|volume=5|issue=3|page=77|url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio05Tuat03-t1-body-d1.html|access-date=2 September 2017}}</ref> |
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==Habitat and distribution== |
==Habitat and distribution== |
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''Clitarchus hookeri'' is found from [[Northland Region|Northland]] to the [[Wellington]] region in the south of the [[North Island]] of New Zealand. |
''Clitarchus hookeri'' is found from [[Northland Region|Northland]] to the [[Wellington]] region in the south of the [[North Island]] of New Zealand. On the [[South Island]] it is not as widespread, being found mainly in eastern coastal areas from [[Nelson, New Zealand|Nelson]] and [[Marlborough New Zealand|Marlborough]] in the north through [[Canterbury, New Zealand|Canterbury]] to its southern limit in [[Dunedin]]. It is also found in Great Britain, where it has been introduced.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brock|first1=Paul D.|last2=Jewell|first2=Tony|date=2002|title=A review of the New Zealand stick insects: new genera and synonymy, keys, and a catalogue|journal=Journal of Orthoptera Research|volume=11|issue=2|pages=189–197|doi=10.1665/1082-6467(2002)011[0189:AROTNZ]2.0.CO;2|issn=1082-6467|doi-access=free}}</ref> The UK population is all-female but came from a sexual population in [[Taranaki]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Morgan‐Richards|first1=Mary|last2=Langton‐Myers|first2=Shelley S.|last3=Trewick|first3=Steven A.|date=2019|title=Loss and gain of sexual reproduction in the same stick insect|journal=Molecular Ecology|language=en|volume=28|issue=17|pages=3929–3941|doi=10.1111/mec.15203|pmid=31386772|pmc=6852293|issn=0962-1083}}</ref> The species is most commonly found on [[Leptospermum scoparium|manuka]], but has also been observed feeding on [[Kunzea ericoides|kanuka]], [[Metrosideros excelsa|pohutukawa]], ''[[Muehlenbeckia australis]]'', [[Rubus|roses]], [[Metrosideros perforata|white rata]], and ''[[Coprosma]]''.<ref name="buckley">{{cite journal|last1=Buckley|first1=Thomas R.|last2=Myers|first2=Shelley S.|last3=Bradler|first3=Sven|title=Revision of the stick insect genus Clitarchus Stål (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae): new synonymies and two new species from northern New Zealand|journal=Zootaxa|date=2014|volume=3900|issue=4|pages=451–82|doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3900.4.1|pmid=25543751}}</ref> |
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== Life cycle & mating behaviour == |
== Life cycle & mating behaviour == |
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[[File:Clitarchus hookeri mating pair.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Mating pair of ''Clitarchus hookeri'']]''Clitarchus hookeri'' are [[Hemimetabolism|hemimetabolous]], meaning that the nymphs grow through a series of six |
[[File:Clitarchus hookeri mating pair.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Mating pair of ''Clitarchus hookeri'']]''Clitarchus hookeri'' are [[Hemimetabolism|hemimetabolous]], meaning that the [[Nymph (biology)|nymphs]] grow through a series of six [[instar]]s before a final moult into their adult stage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stringer|first=I. A. N.|date=1970-01-01|title=The Nymphal and Imaginal Stages of the Bisexual Stick Insect Clitarchus Hookeri (phasmidae: Phasminae)|journal=New Zealand Entomologist|volume=4|issue=3|pages=85–95|doi=10.1080/00779962.1970.9722927|issn=0077-9962}}</ref> |
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Adults are found during summer months and are mostly active at night. During the day they hide among the branches of their host trees, before emerging at sunset to feed and mate.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal| |
Adults are found during the summer months and are mostly active at night. During the day they hide among the branches of their host trees, before emerging at sunset to feed and mate.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Myers|first1=Shelley S.|last2=Buckley|first2=Thomas R.|last3=Holwell|first3=Gregory I.|date=2015-07-08|title=Mate detection and seasonal variation in stick insect mating behaviour (Phamatodea: Clitarchus hookeri)|journal=Behaviour|volume=152|issue=10|pages=1325–1348|doi=10.1163/1568539x-00003281|issn=1568-539X}}</ref> Females hang off the edge of branches feeding on the leaves of their host plant and signalling to males by releasing a mix of volatile chemicals.<ref name=":1" /> The long-legged adult males move around at night in search of mates. Males court females by laying his forelegs across her for between 10 minutes to 1 hour, after which he climbs onto the female and attempts to clasp onto her sub genital plate using his genital claspers.<ref name=":0" /> If the male successfully attaches to the female, mating begins when the female's operculum opens and the male inserts his genitalia. Males remain attached to the female for extended periods, ranging from one through to 10 nights, during which they may mate multiple times.<ref name=":0" /> |
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[[File:Moulting Clitarchus hookeri.jpg|left|thumb|A ''Clitarchus hookeri'' moulting]] |
[[File:Moulting Clitarchus hookeri.jpg|left|thumb|A ''Clitarchus hookeri'' moulting]] |
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''Clitarchus hookeri'' is geographically [[Parthenogenesis| |
''Clitarchus hookeri'' is geographically [[Parthenogenesis|parthenogenetic]], meaning that in some localities females do not mate to reproduce.<ref name="parthenogenesis" /> Instead, they are able to produce fertile eggs without mating. After mating all eggs are the result of sexual reproduction if the females are from sexual populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Morgan-Richards |first=M. |date=2023 |title=No barrier to fertilisation when different sexual populations of the mānuka stick insect are crossed |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00779962.2023.2226454 |journal=New Zealand Entomologist |language=en |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1080/00779962.2023.2226454 |issn=0077-9962|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the South Island ''Clitarchus hookeri'' males are rare or absent, while in the North Island both asexual and sexual populations occur. Although females who reproduce [[Asexual reproduction|asexually]] lay similar number of eggs and have similar hatching success as those who [[Sexual reproduction|reproduce sexually]], their eggs took longer to hatch.<ref name="parthenogenesis" /> Eggs from parthenogenic females took between 21 and 23 weeks, while eggs from mated females took between 9–16 weeks.<ref name="parthenogenesis" /> Females from parthenogenetic populations show a barrier to fertilization in captivity when provided with mates,<ref name=":2" /><ref name="parthenogenesis" /> however, males cannot distinguish between sexual and parthenogenetic females.<ref name=":1" /> However, two wild populations in New Zealand have reverted to sexual reproduction very recently.<ref name=":2" /> |
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[[File:PHAS Phasmidae Clitarchus hookeri egg1.png|thumb|''Clitarchus hookeri'' egg illustration by [[Des Helmore]]]] |
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==Phylogeography== |
==Phylogeography== |
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With the exception of the West Coast of the South Island, the current distribution of ''Clitarchus hookeri'' is widespread on both the North and South Islands of New Zealand. It is thought that its distribution restricted at the [[Last Glacial Maximum]] to refugia in the northern North Island and the east coast of the South Island. It is thought that parthenogenetic female members of the species were able to recolonize areas more favourably following the glacial retreat. South Island individuals and those from the southern region of the North Island form a single [[clade]] with very low genetic diversity.<ref name="parthenogenesis" /> Upper North Island individuals are much more diverse genetically. It is thought that the lack of genetic diversity in the lower North Island/South Island population to be due to its younger lineage than their sexually reproducing relatives.<ref name="buckley2010">{{cite journal|last1=Buckley|first1=Thomas R.|last2=Marske|first2=Katharine|last3=Attanayake|first3=Dilini|title=Phylogeography and ecological niche modelling of the New Zealand stick insect Clitarchus hookeri (White) support survival in multiple coastal refugia|journal=Journal of Biogeography|date=2010|volume=37|issue=4|pages=682–695|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02239.x}}</ref> |
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{{Wikicommons}} |
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{{reflist}} |
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==See also== |
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• [[List of stick insects of New Zealand]] |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Clitarchus hookeri}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Clitarchus hookeri}} |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:Clitarchus|hookeri]] |
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[[Category:Phasmatidae of New Zealand]] |
[[Category:Phasmatidae of New Zealand]] |
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[[Category:Endemic fauna of New Zealand]] |
[[Category:Endemic fauna of New Zealand]] |
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[[Category:Endemic insects of New Zealand]] |
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Latest revision as of 23:34, 8 November 2023
| Clitarchus hookeri | |
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Phasmatodea |
| Family: | Phasmatidae |
| Genus: | Clitarchus |
| Species: | C. hookeri
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| Binomial name | |
| Clitarchus hookeri (White, 1846)
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Clitarchus hookeri, is a stick insect of the family Phasmatidae, endemic to New Zealand. It is possibly New Zealand's most common stick insect. Clitarchus hookeri is often green in appearance, but can also be brown or red. Alongside the prickly stick insect and the Unarmed stick insect, C. hookeri is one of three stick insect species to have become naturalised in Great Britain, with all three having originated in New Zealand.
Description[edit]
Clitarchus hookeri is a large stick insect. This species demonstrates sexual dimorphism.[1] Female specimens grow from 81 – 106 mm and males from 67 – 74 mm.[2] The colour can be variable, even in the same location, ranging from bright green to grey, brown or buff.[3][4] Colour variation is thought to be genetic not environmentally determined.[5] Unlike many tropical stick insects, Clitarchus hookeri is flightless.[6]
Habitat and distribution[edit]
Clitarchus hookeri is found from Northland to the Wellington region in the south of the North Island of New Zealand. On the South Island it is not as widespread, being found mainly in eastern coastal areas from Nelson and Marlborough in the north through Canterbury to its southern limit in Dunedin. It is also found in Great Britain, where it has been introduced.[7] The UK population is all-female but came from a sexual population in Taranaki.[8] The species is most commonly found on manuka, but has also been observed feeding on kanuka, pohutukawa, Muehlenbeckia australis, roses, white rata, and Coprosma.[9]
Life cycle & mating behaviour[edit]
Clitarchus hookeri are hemimetabolous, meaning that the nymphs grow through a series of six instars before a final moult into their adult stage.[10]
Adults are found during the summer months and are mostly active at night. During the day they hide among the branches of their host trees, before emerging at sunset to feed and mate.[11] Females hang off the edge of branches feeding on the leaves of their host plant and signalling to males by releasing a mix of volatile chemicals.[1] The long-legged adult males move around at night in search of mates. Males court females by laying his forelegs across her for between 10 minutes to 1 hour, after which he climbs onto the female and attempts to clasp onto her sub genital plate using his genital claspers.[11] If the male successfully attaches to the female, mating begins when the female's operculum opens and the male inserts his genitalia. Males remain attached to the female for extended periods, ranging from one through to 10 nights, during which they may mate multiple times.[11]
Clitarchus hookeri is geographically parthenogenetic, meaning that in some localities females do not mate to reproduce.[4] Instead, they are able to produce fertile eggs without mating. After mating all eggs are the result of sexual reproduction if the females are from sexual populations.[12] In the South Island Clitarchus hookeri males are rare or absent, while in the North Island both asexual and sexual populations occur. Although females who reproduce asexually lay similar number of eggs and have similar hatching success as those who reproduce sexually, their eggs took longer to hatch.[4] Eggs from parthenogenic females took between 21 and 23 weeks, while eggs from mated females took between 9–16 weeks.[4] Females from parthenogenetic populations show a barrier to fertilization in captivity when provided with mates,[8][4] however, males cannot distinguish between sexual and parthenogenetic females.[1] However, two wild populations in New Zealand have reverted to sexual reproduction very recently.[8]
Phylogeography[edit]
With the exception of the West Coast of the South Island, the current distribution of Clitarchus hookeri is widespread on both the North and South Islands of New Zealand. It is thought that its distribution restricted at the Last Glacial Maximum to refugia in the northern North Island and the east coast of the South Island. It is thought that parthenogenetic female members of the species were able to recolonize areas more favourably following the glacial retreat. South Island individuals and those from the southern region of the North Island form a single clade with very low genetic diversity.[4] Upper North Island individuals are much more diverse genetically. It is thought that the lack of genetic diversity in the lower North Island/South Island population to be due to its younger lineage than their sexually reproducing relatives.[13]
See also[edit]
• List of stick insects of New Zealand
References[edit]
- ^ a b c Nakano, Mari; Morgan-Richards, Mary; Godfrey, A. Jonathan R.; Clavijo McCormick, Andrea (2019-07-10). "Parthenogenetic Females of the Stick Insect Clitarchus hookeri Maintain Sexual Traits". Insects. 10 (7): 202. doi:10.3390/insects10070202. ISSN 2075-4450. PMC 6681278. PMID 31295894.
- ^ "Stick Insect (Clitarchus hookeri) Green form". T.E.R.R.A.I.N. Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
- ^ "Clitarchus". Landcare Research. Retrieved 2012-12-13.
- ^ a b c d e f Stringer, Ian A. N.; Morgan-Richards, Mary; Trewick, Steve A. (2010). "Geographic parthenogenesis and the common tea-tree stick insect of New Zealand" (PDF). Molecular Ecology. 19 (6): 1227–1238. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04542.x. PMID 20163549. S2CID 25972583. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
- ^ "Colour change stick insects – Te Taha Tawhiti". sites.massey.ac.nz. Retrieved 2023-08-22.
- ^ Salmon, J. T. (March 1955). "Stick Insects". Tuatara. 5 (3): 77. Retrieved 2 September 2017.
- ^ Brock, Paul D.; Jewell, Tony (2002). "A review of the New Zealand stick insects: new genera and synonymy, keys, and a catalogue". Journal of Orthoptera Research. 11 (2): 189–197. doi:10.1665/1082-6467(2002)011[0189:AROTNZ]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1082-6467.
- ^ a b c Morgan‐Richards, Mary; Langton‐Myers, Shelley S.; Trewick, Steven A. (2019). "Loss and gain of sexual reproduction in the same stick insect". Molecular Ecology. 28 (17): 3929–3941. doi:10.1111/mec.15203. ISSN 0962-1083. PMC 6852293. PMID 31386772.
- ^ Buckley, Thomas R.; Myers, Shelley S.; Bradler, Sven (2014). "Revision of the stick insect genus Clitarchus Stål (Phasmatodea: Phasmatidae): new synonymies and two new species from northern New Zealand". Zootaxa. 3900 (4): 451–82. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3900.4.1. PMID 25543751.
- ^ Stringer, I. A. N. (1970-01-01). "The Nymphal and Imaginal Stages of the Bisexual Stick Insect Clitarchus Hookeri (phasmidae: Phasminae)". New Zealand Entomologist. 4 (3): 85–95. doi:10.1080/00779962.1970.9722927. ISSN 0077-9962.
- ^ a b c Myers, Shelley S.; Buckley, Thomas R.; Holwell, Gregory I. (2015-07-08). "Mate detection and seasonal variation in stick insect mating behaviour (Phamatodea: Clitarchus hookeri)". Behaviour. 152 (10): 1325–1348. doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003281. ISSN 1568-539X.
- ^ Morgan-Richards, M. (2023). "No barrier to fertilisation when different sexual populations of the mānuka stick insect are crossed". New Zealand Entomologist: 1–6. doi:10.1080/00779962.2023.2226454. ISSN 0077-9962.
- ^ Buckley, Thomas R.; Marske, Katharine; Attanayake, Dilini (2010). "Phylogeography and ecological niche modelling of the New Zealand stick insect Clitarchus hookeri (White) support survival in multiple coastal refugia". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (4): 682–695. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02239.x.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Clitarchus hookeri.
Data related to Clitarchus hookeri at Wikispecies
