Bottled water

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A 1.5 litre bottle of water

Bottled water is drinking water packaged in bottles for individual consumption and retail sale.

The water used can be glacial water, spring water, well water, purified water as well as public water sources (i.e., tap water)[1]. Many countries, particularly developed countries, regulate the quality of bottled water through government standards, typically used to ensure that water quality is safe and labels accurately reflect bottle contents. In many developing countries, however, such standards are variable and are often less stringent than those of developed nations[citation needed].

Today, bottled water companies are facing criticism as consumer's concerns about the environment increase. Packaging and shipping water consumes energy and contributes to global warming. Empty bottles add to litter and solid waste. As a rule, bottled water is no safer or healthier than the water that flows from municipal water systems [2]. The Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club and World Wildlife Fund have all urged their supporters to consume less bottled water and various campaigns against bottled water are starting to appear. Many believe that bottled water is no better than tap water and that home water filtration may also be a viable option. Others see bottled water not just as a substitute for municipal water. It is also a substitute for soft drinks or sport drinks, for example from vending machines. When viewed as an option to soft drinks or sport drinks bottled water does not increase energy consumption or waste over these products and provides a healthy alternative to those drinks.

Demand

In developed countries, demand is driven by a variety of factors including convenience, the perception that bottled water may be safer than local municipal water, and taste preferences. Packaging and advertising work to foster these perceptions and brand bottled water in ways similar to branded soft drinks. Though many municipalities, particularly in the developed world, provide high-quality, highly regulated, potable water, occasional problems with contamination from commercial fertilizer, MTBE, or other contaminants are often widely publicized. Violations of tap water standards are, in the United States, openly reported, especially examples like the severe 1993 Cryptosporidium outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, which led to several deaths and 400,000 illnesses (see: Milwaukee Cryptosporidium outbreak). The University of Cincinnati recently completed a "Tap Water Quality Analysis" for major US cities. While most cities have what is considered "safe" tap water, contaminants ranging from bacteria to heavy metals were present in the tap water. The actual or perceived threat from studies like this continue to drive up bottled water sales annually.

In most developed countries, however, especially the United States, the regulations governing tap water quality, monitoring, and regulation are more stringent than those for bottled water, where monitoring is less frequent and strict, and reporting violations is often voluntary. In the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency set standards for tap water; the Food and Drug Administration sets standards for bottled water.

In developing countries, demand is driven by similar factors but further increased by the lack of potable groundwater in many areas, the lack of reliable or safe municipal water in many urban areas, chemical and organic pollution of ground and well water, and convenience relative to boiling or otherwise treating accessible but potentially contaminated water. As in richer countries, advertising also contributes to water sales in developing countries. Though bottled water may provide an alternative to unsafe drinking water, it does so only for those able to afford it; many of the world's poorest people cannot afford bottled water (UN World Water Development Report 2006).

In 2006, the US bottled water sales surpassed 8 Billion gallons of water (31 billion litres)(Beverage Marketing Corporation, 2007)[3] exceeding sales of all other beverages except carbonated soft drinks.

Impact of bottled water

A large pile of full Poland Spring bottles

Global sales of bottled water are estimated at over $100 billion a year with global consumption estimated at 154 billion litres in 2004.[4] The impact of the popularity of bottled water has been criticised from environmental, economic, and health perspectives.

Environmental impact

In 2004 the total global consumption of bottled water was 154 billion litres (41 billion gallons), a 57 percent increase from the 98 billion litres consumed in 1999.[5] Americans buy about 28 billion water bottles a year, 80% end up in landfills.

The arguments made for this include that, unlike tap water, bottled water uses up oil and other fossil fuels to be produced and shipped, fills up landfills, represents wasted money, and does not go through nearly as rigorous filtering and cleansing processes. Because of this, some have advocated people to stop buying and consuming bottled water so much and instead consume tap water. [6] In 2007, a water wholesaler in the Santa Clara County of Northern California launched a campaign promoting drinking tap water over bottled water. Their campaign can be found on the Santa Clara Valley Water District's Tap v Bottled Page

Energy use in manufacturing, storage and transport

The Pacific Institute estimates that producing the bottles for American consumption in 2006 required the equivalent of more than 17 million barrels of oil. The manufacture of every ton of PET produces around 3 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). Bottling water thus created more than 2.5 million tons of CO2 in 2006. [7]

Once the bottle is created and filled with water, large amounts of fossil fuel are expended delivering the water from its source to end user by means of ground transportation. Some bottled water is transported long distances by ship in addition to the distances it travels by truck or rail. It takes a fair amount of energy to move a plastic bottle from where it is made, to where it is filled, then to the store, and finally into the consumer's hand. 250g of CO2 are released for each bottle of FIJI Water imported to the United States. This includes 93g for manufacturing a bottle in China, 4g for transporting an empty bottle to Fiji, and 153g for shipping a full bottle to the United States. [8]

Overall, the average energy cost to make the plastic, fill the bottle, transport it to market and then deal with the waste would be "like filling up a quarter of every bottle with oil." (Peter Gleick, an expert on water policy and director at the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California.[9]

Local effects on water resources

See also: Global use of fresh water

It also takes water to make a bottle. If a container holds 1 litre it requires 3 to 5 litres of water in its manufacturing process (the higher estimate includes power plant cooling water). By one estimate the total amount of water used to produce and deliver one bottle of imported water is even 6.74 l. [1]

The amount of water used to manufacture and fill water bottles is only a small fraction of the amount of global water withdrawals, since by far most water used by humans goes to irrigated agriculture and other large scale uses. But the local effects of bottled water are of growing concern in communities with large bottled water plants tapping into local aquifers. For example, large commercial bottlers are trying to meet growing demand for their product and are projecting large increases in coming years. Companies like Perrier's Zephyrhills facility are requesting to increase their pumping from a spring on a private ranch in central Florida by 600 percent in the next 10 years. The request was denied by a judge ruling that the pumping could dry up Tampa Bay kitchen sinks, some 37 miles downstream. [2]

On a local level, water bottlers may adversely affect ground water levels if they bottle more water than is naturally replenished. Rivers are delicate ecosystems. Tapping springs and aquifers even on a small scale can alter the movement of sediment in nearby streams, which can in turn disrupt the food supply for fish and other wildlife. "It's a very complicated system, and we don't have a very good predictive understanding of how the properties of the river channel will be affected [by large-scale pumping]," warns Kurt Cuffey, assistant professor of geology at the University of California at Berkeley.[3]

Saltwater intrusion is another problem with tapping aquifers in coastal areas. In healthy ecosystems along coastal areas there is a natural flow of groundwater that pushes freshwater out against the saltwater, creating a kind of sea wall. When the groundwater is being over used and the flow falters as a result the saltwater will begin to creep underground, ruining drinking water, wetlands, and crops. Saltwater intrusion is already a problem in parts of coastal California, Florida, and New York as a result of the demands–including water for bottling–being made on local water supplies. [4]

Solid waste generation

Though the materials used for water bottles are generally recyclable, around 80% of bottled water bottles sold in the U.S. end up in landfills; only 20% are recycled. Worldwide, recycling rates are even lower: up to 90% of bottles are not recycled. [5]

Economic impact

See also: Water supply and sanitation in Latin America

The economic impact of bottled water consumption is especially relevant in developing countries, where tap water is often of poor quality and where, even if the quality of tap water may be acceptable, it is often difficult to obtain reliable data on the quality of tap water. Therefore those who can afford it do not want to take a risk and switch to bottled water, usually of the type sold in large bottles of 5 gallons. Bottled water use is especially high in countries such as Mexico and Brazil (see above). While the poorest often can't afford bottled water and the richest face little economic constraints in buying bottled water, the cost of bottled water is a significant burden for middle-class households in many developing countries. For example, sales of bottled water in Mexico are estimated at 32 billion Pesos (US$ 3bn) in 2005,[10] or about US$ 135 per household, which is about twice the level of the average tap water bill. If these funds were available to water utilities they would have the financial means to improve significantly the quality of tap water.

The Wall Street Journal, after seeing the incredible demand for bottled water, is considering it the next best thing to oil and gold. [6]

In 2004, Andrea Petersen wrote in the Wall Street Journal that "... for the first time, Americans are expected to buy more bottled water than beer or coffee. Sales of bottled water reached $7.7 billion in 2002, up 12% from 2001, according to Beverage Marketing Corp., a New York-based consulting company.” [7] Bottled water is a big business and with the current trend, everyone trying to get a piece, the individual states and countries are beginning to voice their objections. Many states have voted the big companies not over pump on their soil. [8]

In Ontario, Canada, a fee has been aimed at commercial and industrial water users to contribute to the cost of managing the water supply. The fee has been dubbed a 'cost recovery regulatory charge'. Those charges are explicitly stated as not a tax but as a fee to create a more sustainable system. Polaris Institute[9]

Another concern is the "privatization" of water. The United Church of Christ, United Church of Canada, National Council of Churches, National Coalition of American Nuns and Presbyterians for Restoring Creation are among some of the religious organizations that have raised questions about whether or not this is ethical. They regard the industrial purchase and repackaging at a much higher resale price of a basic resource as an unethical trend. [10]

Health impact

About 25% of bottled water sold is simply re-processed/used municipal(city) water according to a 1999 study in the United States.[11] Both Aquafina from Pepsi-Cola Company and Dasani from The Coca-Cola Company are reprocessed from municipal water systems. [12][13] Some bottled waters, such as Penta Water make unverified health benefit claims. While there have been few comprehensive studies, one analysis several years ago found that about 22 percent of brands that were tested contain, in at least one sample, chemical contaminants at levels above strict state health limits. If consumed over a long period of time, some of these contaminants could cause cancer or other health problems[14] at rates higher than those considered tolerable by the regulatory body setting the standards. In addition, 60 to 70 percent of all bottled water in the U.S. is packaged and sold in a state that is not regulated by the FDA. In the United States, 1 in 5 states do not regulate bottled water[15]. The FDA reports that:"about 75 percent of bottled water sold in the U.S. comes from natural underground sources, which include rivers, lakes, springs and artesian wells." The other 25% comes from municipal sources, which are the “sources” of two leading brands of bottled water--Dasani (Coca-Cola) and Aquafina (PepsiCo)[11]. Bottled water processed with distillation or reverse osmosis lacks fluoride ions which are sometimes naturally present in groundwater, or added at a water treatment plant and which has an effect on the inhibition of cavity formation; the drinking of distilled water may conceivably increase the risk of tooth decay due to a lack of this element.[16] However, most people continue to cook with common tap water and this is thought to potentially provide sufficient fluoride to maintain normal prophylaxis in many instances. Any other minerals in tap water such as calcium and magnesium are present in such minuscule amounts that their absence is compensated for many thousands of times over by other dietary sources. On the other hand, some people wish to avoid exposure to fluoride, particularly systemic ingestion of fluoride in drinking water, and may choose such bottled water for this feature. [12]

Bottled water is typically printed with expiration dates. Even if the water itself is pure, a plastic container may leak chemicals such as phthalates, or Bisphenol A into the bottled water[17]. Storage in cool and dark places helps reduce leaching of these chemicals. Industry associations claim "bottled water can be used indefinitely if stored properly."[18]

If the original water bottled is not pure, especially if it contained biological contaminants, then the water quality will continue to degrade regardless of the storage container or conditions.[19]

Many bottled water companies also add sulfites to their water in order to enhance the flavor, claiming that the water tastes fresher. This can be a problem for anybody who has a Sulfite Allergy. Whether or not you know if you have a sulfite allergy, allergic reactions you have might be caused by the bottled water you drink.

Regulation

Regulation of bottled water varies widely by country, with developed nations generally having more regulation and enforcement than developing countries.

Regulation in the United States

In the United States, specific definitions and meanings ("standards of identity") apply to the most common types of bottled water. Bottled water manufacturers must ensure that their products meet the FDA established standard of identity for bottled water products. A bottled water product bearing a particular statement of identity (e.g., mineral water) must meet the requirements of the standard of identity in order to avoid being misbranded. For example, under the standard of identity regulations bottled water may only be labeled "mineral water" in the United States if it: (1) contains not less than 250 ppm total dissolved solids; (2) comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or springs; (3) originates from a hydrogeologically protected source; and (4) contains no added minerals. There are similar definitions for bottled water, drinking water, artesian water, ground water, distilled water, deionized water, reverse osmosis water, purified water, sparkling bottled water, spring water, sterile water and well water. A bottled water product must bear the appropriate name as reflected in the applicable standard of identity definition or it is misbranded.

Nutritional information required on water bottle labels varies from region to region and country to country. In the U.S. the only labeling required in the traditional "nutrition" label, which has almost no relevant information for water. In Europe, labels must include a chemical analysis for a far wider set of minerals. Bottled water in the U.S. is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), who demand suppliers use an "approved source", which the FDA defines as:

[approved source] means a source of water...that has been inspected and the water sampled, analyzed, and found to be of a safe and sanitary quality according to applicable laws and regulations of state and local government agencies having jurisdiction.

However, the FDA does not define guidelines for which regulations may be considered applicable, nor set requirements for water sources in the absence of applicable laws. Additionally, bottled water suppliers are not required to provide details of the water source on the labels. Water bottlers are permitted to sell contaminated water if, and only if, their labeling notes the water contains "excessive bacteria" or "excessive chemical substances". Water bottlers are not required to test for the presence of E. coli, cryptosporidium, giardia, asbestos, or certain organic compounds such as benzenes.[20]

In the United States, tap water is regulated by the stringent United States Environmental Protection Agency. Bottled water is regulated under a similar, but significantly less strict set of regulations from the United States Food and Drug Administration under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ("FFDCA" or the "Act"), 21 U.S.C. § 301et seq. [21]

U.S. FDA "Standards of Identity" for Bottled Water

The FDA has established "Standards of Identity"[22] for bottled water products sold in the U.S. Note that other countries have different definitions and standards; some countries have no consistent labeling requirements. Some of the more common U.S. types of bottled water are listed below:

  • Artesian Water - This type of water originates from a confined aquifer that has been tapped. The distinguishing feature of water from an artesian aquifer is that it flows from the tap due to gravity; the subterranean water level is at a height greater than that of the location of the tap.
  • Fluoridated Water - This type of water contains fluoride added within the limitations established in the FDA Code of Federal Regulations. This category includes water classified as "For Infants" or "Nursery."
  • Mineral Water - This type of water contains at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids (TDS). It comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or spring, and originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. No minerals may be added to this water.
  • Purified water - This type of water has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis, or other suitable processes. Purified water may also be referred to as "demineralized water." It meets the definition of "purified water" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
  • Sparkling Water - This type of water contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. The carbon dioxide may be removed and replenished after treatment.
  • Spring Water - This type of water comes from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the Earth's surface.
  • Sterile Water - This type of water meets the requirements under "sterility tests" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.

EU Regulations for bottled water

European Directive 80/777/EEC[23] - modified by Directive 96/70/EC[24] - deals with the marketing and exploitation of natural mineral waters in the European Union. Two main types of bottled water are recognised:

Broadly speaking, mineral water is groundwater that has emerged from the ground and flowed over rock. Treatment of mineral water is restricted to removal of unstable elements such as iron and sulfur compounds. Treatment for such minerals can only extend to filtration or decanting with oxygenation. Free carbon dioxide may be removed only by physical methods, and the regulations for introduction (or reintroduction) of CO2 are strictly defined. Disinfection of natural mineral water is completely prohibited, including the addition of any element that is likely to change bacterial colony counts. If natural mineral is effervescent, it must be labelled accordingly, depending on the origin of the carbon dioxide:

  • Naturally carbonated natural mineral water (no introduction of CO2)
  • Natural mineral water fortified with gas from the spring (reintroduction of CO2)
  • Carbonated natural mineral water (CO2 added following strict guidelines)

Spring water is also derived from groundwater sources, but is collected by means of a well - in practice, often a borehole. Spring water may be subject to various kinds of treatment prior to bottling.

The same chemical and microbiological parametric quality regimes apply to both types of waters.

It should be noted that an additional kind of bottled water - that considered as being used as a "medicinal product" - is dealt with in Council Directive 65/65/EEC [25]and this is excluded from the scope of the other two pieces of legislation.

Alternatives to bottled water

An office water cooler with a reusable 5-gallon bottle

Tap Water

In developed countries, municipal water is generally of high quality, and provides a far cheaper alternative to pure or bottled water. In municipalities where the water is of a somewhat lower quality, the use of home filtration systems such as Brita, Culligan, Kinetico or PUR filters provides potable water at considerably lower cost than pure or bottled water[citation needed].

In many areas of the world, good municipal water is unavailable. The United Nations estimates that in 2005, 1.1 billion people lacked access to safe, affordable, drinking water, and two to five million people die every year from preventable water-related diseases. In areas without a consistent supply of safe, potable water, alternatives to bottled water include boiling, filtering, or otherwise processing contaminated water to remove harmful pathogens or chemicals[citation needed].

Even where advanced water filters are not available, and fuel for boiling is scarce, effective water filters can be made in a few hours from clay by hand without advanced technology or skills. [26]. In some areas, water may be obtained from and in the form of rainwater, stored in a cistern or rainwater tank. In rural areas the rain is typically very pure and can be safely consumed without additional treatment or filtration[citation needed]

Ground water obtained through pumps or wells should be monitored for quality to ensure no risk of contamination or build up. Many people in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India are drinking groundwater that has been discovered to be contaminated with arsenic after wells were drilled to protect the population from the contaminated surface water[citation needed].

Many countries such as the United Kingdom, have water that is adequate for drinking on tap, due to filters in the plumbing infrastructure.

Recently, San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom has issued an executive order banning city departments from buying bottled water, including water coolers. This went into effect July 1, 2007. The mayor argues against the sale of a product that is generally considered inferior to the quality of San Francisco tap water.[27]

Many large corporations and some water companies and wholesalers, especially in the California Bay Area are now making a large effort to promote tap water over bottled water. Some of the Bay Area cities that promote tap over bottled water include San Francisco, Emeryville, Santa Clara, and Oakland. The Santa Clara Valley Water District in Santa Clara County launched its tap v bottled water campaign, with the slogan, “Tap Water, the Clear Choice”, in 2007. Its campaign page can be viewed here.

In a May 18, 2005 article, John Stossel wrote, "For a show on the Showtime cable channel, satirists Penn and Teller got a trendy California restaurant to let them fool customers with a "water steward." Like a wine steward, he had lots of fancy bottles, and most diners said they loved their elegant waters. "Oh, yeah, definitely better than tap water!" said one. But tap water is just what it was — the "water steward" filled the fancy bottles using the hose on the restaurant's patio." [13]

Soft Drinks

In vending machines bottled water is usually a substitute for soft drinks. If water fountains are not available bottled water is a more healthy alternative than soft drinks and produce no more waste products than the soft drink that it replaces.

Bottled water service

It is not uncommon for business, or sometimes individual, customers to subscribe to a bottled water service, which, instead of selling drinking water in small individual-use bottle, supplies it in large, reusable (in the USA, typically 5 US gallons) containers. This practice eliminates the issue of disposing empty bottles.

Purified water vending machines

Drinking water vending machines in Pattaya, Thailand. The price is 1 baht per litre.

A number of companies worldwide, among which are a number of North American supermarket chains, have vending machines that dispense purified water into customer's own containers, again obviating the costs and environmental issues involved in manufacturing, transporting, and disposing of, plastic bottles. When offered in low-income areas, this practice makes purified water more affordable to local population.

See also

Brands

References

  1. ^ Bottled Water Vs. Tap Water by Janet Majeski Jemmott, Reader's Digest, February 2008, page 118
  2. ^ CBD Television (2000-02-08). "Is bottled water safer than tap water?".
  3. ^ http://www.bottledwater.org/public/BWFactsHome_main.htm
  4. ^ BOTTLED WATER: Pouring Resources Down the Drain
  5. ^ [http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update51.htm BOTTLED WATER: Pouring Resources Down the Drain]. February 2, 2006. Accessed September 24, 2007.
  6. ^ In Praise of Tap Water - New York Times
  7. ^ Pacific Institute - Bottled Water and Energy: A Fact Sheet
  8. ^ Estimate by Pablo Päster as quoted on Treehugger
  9. ^ Pacific Institute - Bottled Water and Energy: A Fact Sheet and (Seattle P.I.))
  10. ^ La Jornada
  11. ^ According to a four-year study of drinking water in the United States by the Natural Resources Defense Council, see National Geographic 2006 and NRDC
  12. ^ Bottled Water: Pure Drink or Pure Hype?
  13. ^ Is your bottled water coming from a faucet?
  14. ^ Drinking Water: In Brief: FAQ
  15. ^ Is bottled water really better than tap?
  16. ^ Bottled Water Cited as Contributing to Cavity Comeback
  17. ^ Firefighters help sponsor CancerSmart Consumer Guide
  18. ^ Canadian Bottled Water Association
  19. ^ Microbial quality of domestic and imported brands of bottled water in Trinidad.
  20. ^ Gaping Holes in Government Bottled Water Regulation
  21. ^ FD&C Act Chapter IV
  22. ^ 21 C.F.R. § 165.110, http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/FCF165.html
  23. ^ European Directive 80/777/EEC
  24. ^ Directive 96/70/EC
  25. ^ http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31965L0065:EN:HTML Council Directive 65/65/EEC
  26. ^ Water Filter
  27. ^ "Mayor to cut off flow of city money for bottled water," San Francisco Chronicle, June 22, 2007

External links

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