Daijō-kan: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m En dash fix (via WP:JWB)
 
(163 intermediate revisions by 82 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Highest organ of the imperial Japanese government in the Nara period and Meiji Restoration}}
{{Daijō-kan}}
{{Daijō-kan}}


The {{Nihongo|'''Daijō-kan''' or '''Dajō-kan'''|太政官|lead=yes}},<ref>''Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary'', Kenkyusha Limited, {{ISBN|4-7674-2015-6}}</ref> also known as the '''Great [[Council of State]]''', was (i) (''Daijō-kan'') the highest organ of [[Japan]]'s premodern Imperial government under the [[Ritsuryō]] legal system during and after the [[Nara period]] or (ii) (''Dajō-kan'') the highest organ of [[Japan]]'s government briefly restored to power after the [[Meiji Restoration]], which was replaced by the [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]].<!-- is this article about two different entities? either it should be split into two articles as appropriate, or this lead paragraph needs to be rewritten for clarity -->
The '''{{nihongo|Daijō-kan|太政官|}}''' was the Department of State in [[Nara period|Nara]] and [[Heian period]] [[Japan]] and briefly under the [[Meiji Constitution]].


It was consolidated in the [[Taihō Code]] of 702. The [[Asuka Kiyomihara Code]] of 689 marks the initial appearance of this central administrative body composed of the three ministers—the ''[[Daijō-daijin]]'' (Chancellor), the ''[[Sadaijin]]'' (Minister of the Left) and the ''[[Udaijin]]'' (Minister of the Right).<ref name="hall232">Hall, John Whitney ''et al.''. (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=nCJwEDzyxNgC&dq=Asuka+code&pg=PA232 ''The Cambridge History of Japan'', p. 232.]</ref>
Initially created by the [[Code of Taiho|Code of Taihō]] (大宝律令) in [[701]], this Imperial governing structure was headed by the Great Council of State -- the ''Daijō-kan''. This council and its subsidiary ministries handled all secular administrative affairs of the country, while the ''[[Jingi-kan]]'' (神祇官) or Department of Worship, oversaw all matters regarding [[Shinto|Shintō]] (神道) ritual, clergy, and shrines.


The Imperial governing structure was headed by the ''Daijō-kan''. This council and its subsidiary ministries handled all secular administrative affairs of the country, while the ''[[Jingi-kan]]'' or Department of Worship, oversaw all matters regarding [[Shinto|Shintō]] ritual, clergy, and shrines.
This structured organization gradually lost power over the course of the 10th and 11th centuries, as the [[Fujiwara clan]], dominating the post of [[Sessho and Kampaku|Imperial regent]], began to dominate the ''Daijō-kan'' as well. It became increasingly common for the regent to hold the post of chancellor or other office simultaneously. By the 12th century, the council was essentially powerless as a separate entity, though it seems clear that the system was never formally dismantled. Over the course of centuries, the ''ritsuryō'' state produced more and more information which was carefully archived; however, with the passage of time in the Heian period, ''ritsuryō'' institutions evolved into a political and cultural system without feedback.<ref>[http://202.231.40.34/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ1508.pdf Mesheryakov, Alexander. (2003). "On the Quantity of Written Data Produced by the Ritsuryō State"], ''Japan Review'', 15:187-199.</ref>


This structured organization gradually lost power over the 10th and 11th centuries, as the [[Fujiwara clan]], dominating the post of [[Sessho and Kampaku|Imperial regent]], began to dominate the ''Daijō-kan'' as well. It became increasingly common for the regent to hold the post of chancellor or other office simultaneously. By the 12th century, the council was essentially powerless as a separate entity, though it seems clear that the system was never formally dismantled. Over centuries, the ''ritsuryō'' state produced more and more information which was carefully archived; however, over time in the Heian period, ''ritsuryō'' institutions evolved into a political and cultural system without feedback.<ref>[http://202.231.40.34/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ1508.pdf Mesheryakov, Alexander (2003). "On the Quantity of Written Data Produced by the Ritsuryō State"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110529220438/http://202.231.40.34/jpub/pdf/jr/IJ1508.pdf |date=2011-05-29 }}, ''Japan Review'', 15:187–199.</ref>
By the time of [[Emperor Komei]], the [[kuge]] aristocracy were joined in common goals by a number of newly powerful provincial figures from outside Kyoto. Together, this tenuous, undefined coalition of men worked together to restore the long latent prestige, persuasive power, and active strengths of a re-invigorated Imperial center. This combination of factors thrust an archaic hierarchy into the center of national attention, but with so many other high-priority matters demanding immediate attention, there was little time or energy to invest in reforming or re-organizing the ''Daijō-kan''.

By the time of the [[Emperor Kōmei]], the [[kuge]] aristocracy was joined in common goals by several newly powerful provincial figures from outside Kyoto. Together, this tenuous, undefined coalition of men worked to restore the long latent prestige, persuasive power, and active strengths of a re-invigorated Imperial center. This combination of factors thrust an archaic hierarchy into the center of national attention, but with so many other high-priority matters demanding immediate attention, there was little time or energy to invest in reforming or re-organizing the ''Daijō-kan''.


==Ritsuryō organization and hierarchy==
==Ritsuryō organization and hierarchy==
The [[eighth century]] [[ritsuryō]] innovations would proved to be remarkably durable and resilient across the span of centuries.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/courtgovt.shtml Ritsuryō -- court structure and offices], Sheffield.</ref>
The eighth century [[ritsuryō]] innovations would prove to be remarkably durable and resilient across the span of centuries.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/courtgovt.shtml Ritsuryō -- court structure and offices], Sheffield.</ref>


Any exercise of meaningful powers of court officials reached its nadir during the years of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], and yet the ''Daijō-kan'' did manage to persist intact through the initial years of the [[Meiji Restoration]]. It is not possible to evaluate any individual office without assessing its role in the context of a durable yet flexible network and hierarchy of functionaries.<ref>Ozaki, Yukio. (2001). ''The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan'' pp. 10-11.</ref>
Any exercise of meaningful powers of court officials reached its [[nadir]] during the years of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], and yet the ''Daijō-kan'' did manage to persist intact through the initial years of the [[Meiji Restoration]].<ref>Ozaki, Yukio. (2001). ''The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan'' pp. 10-11.</ref> It is not possible to assess or evaluate any individual office without assessing its role in the context of a durable yet flexible network and hierarchy of functionaries.<ref>Dickson, Walter G. ''et al.'' (1898). {{Google books|s9YeAAAAMAAJ|"The Eight Boards of Government" in ''Japan,'' pp. 55-78.|page=56}}; excerpt at p. 56, "Klaproth has given in his "Annals of the Emperors" a sketch of these eight boards, with the offices under each. It is ... a concise account of the government of Japan. The study of such a subject is rather dry and uninteresting, but it is necessary for any one who wishes to make himself acquainted with Japanese history, either of the past or of the present day...."</ref>


In the early [[Meiji period]], the appointed Imperial ''Daijo-kan'' was filled with princes, aristocrats, loyalists domain lords (''daimyo''), and samurai.<ref>Ozaki, pp. 1-6.</ref>
In the early [[Meiji period]], the appointed Imperial ''Daijo-kan'' was filled with princes, aristocrats, loyalists domain lords (''daimyō''), and samurai.<ref>Ozaki, pp. 1-6.</ref>


Within months after [[Emperor Meiji]]'s [[Charter Oath]], the ancient ritsuryō structure was slightly modified with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within the ''Daijō-kan'' system.<ref>Ozaki, p. 10.</ref> The evolution of a deliberative body within a modern constitutional system was gradual, and it's constituent differences from the old ''Daijō-kan'' were not entirely self-evident at first, as revealed in an Imperial message in 1869:
Within months after [[Emperor Meiji]]'s [[Charter Oath]], the ancient ritsuryō structure was slightly modified with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within the ''Daijō-kan'' system.<ref>Ozaki, p. 10.</ref> The evolution of a deliberative body within a modern constitutional system was gradual, and its constituent differences from the old ''Daijō-kan'' were not entirely self-evident at first, as revealed in an Imperial message in 1869:
:''"The Assembly shall be for the wide ranging consultation of public opinion and, respecting the Imperial will which laid the foundations of national government, it will be a place where the energies of the multitude are harnessed. Thus, it is necessary that proceedings will show respect for the Imperial rescript, be united in purpose with the ''Daijō-kan'', take the fundamentals of government to heart, judiciously address matters which arise, and act to ensure that unity within the country is not compromised."''<ref name="Oz11">Ozaki, p. 11.</ref>
<blockquote>The Assembly shall be for the wide ranging consultation of public opinion and, respecting the Imperial will which laid the foundations of national government, it will be a place where the energies of the multitude are harnessed. Thus, it is necessary that proceedings will show respect for the Imperial rescript, be united in purpose with the ''Daijō-kan'', take the fundamentals of government to heart, judiciously address matters which arise, and act to ensure that unity within the country is not compromised.<ref name="Oz11">Ozaki, p. 11.</ref></blockquote>


Some months later, another major reform of the ''Daijō-kan'' re-united the the legislative and executive functions which had been clearly separated earlier.<ref name="Oz11">[see above]</ref>
Some months later, another major reform of the ''Daijō-kan'' re-united the legislative and executive functions which had been clearly separated earlier.<ref name="Oz11" />


In [[1871]], The office of ''[[Daijō-daijin]]'' in the Great Council of State was briefly resurrected under the [[Meiji Constitution]] with the appointment of [[Sanjō Sanetomi]]. Despite the similarity of names for its constituent offices, this ''Daijō-kan'' would have been unrecognizable to Fujiwara courtiers of the [[Heian period]]. Nor would it have seemed at all familiar to those men who surrounded the emperor in the days of the [[Kemmu Restoration]]. In due course, it was decided that a modern integrated cabinet system would better serve a modern Japan. The ''Daijō-kan'' system, which had been divided into ministerial committees, would be replaced by a more modern model.
In 1871, The office of ''[[Daijō-daijin]]'' in the Great Council of State was briefly resurrected under the [[Meiji Constitution]] with the appointment of [[Sanjō Sanetomi]]. Despite the similarity of names for its constituent offices, this ''Daijō-kan'' would have been unrecognizable to Fujiwara courtiers of the [[Heian period]]. Nor would it have seemed at all familiar to those men who surrounded the emperor in the days of the [[Kenmu Restoration]]. In due course, it was decided that a modern integrated cabinet system would better serve a modern Japan. The ''Daijō-kan'' system, which had been divided into ministerial committees, would be replaced by a more modern model.


In December [[1885]], the old system was abolished completely;<ref name="Oz86">Ozaki, p. 86.</ref> and yet, even afterwards, some elements of old system were adapted to new uses. For example, in that year, the title of ''Naidaijin'' was reconfigured to mean the [[Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan]] in the {{nihongo|[[Imperial Court]]|宮中,|''kyūchū''}}.<ref>Dus, Peter. (1988). ''The Cambridge History of Japan: The Twentieth Century,'' pp. 59, 81.</ref> The man who had previously held the office of prime minister or chief minister of the initial restoration government was the ''Daijō-daijin'', [[Sanjō Sanetomi]]. Sanjō petitioned the emperor to be relieved of his ancient ritsuryō office; and he was then immediately appointed ''Naidaijin'', or Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal.<ref name="Oz86">[see above]</ref> The office of the Privy Seal was identical with the old ''Naidaijin'' only in the sense of the\is Japanese title -- not in terms of function or powers.<ref>[http://www.unterstein.net/ Unterstein (in German)]: [http://www.unterstein.net/or/docs/JapanPeers.pdf Ranks in Ancient and Meiji Japan (in English and French)], pp. 6, 27.</ref>
In December 1885, the old system was abolished completely;<ref name="Oz86">Ozaki, p. 86.</ref> and yet, even afterwards, some elements of old system were adapted to new uses. For example, in that year, the title of ''[[Naidaijin]]'' was reconfigured to mean the [[Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan]] in the [[Court (royal)|Imperial Court]].<ref>Dus, Peter. (1988). ''The Cambridge History of Japan: The Twentieth Century,'' pp. 59, 81.</ref> The man who had previously held the office of prime minister or chief minister of the initial restoration government was the ''Daijō-daijin'', [[Sanjō Sanetomi]]. Sanjō petitioned the emperor to be relieved of his ancient ritsuryō office; and he was then immediately appointed ''[[Naidaijin]]'', or Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal.<ref name="Oz86" /> The office of the Privy Seal was identical with the old ''Naidaijin'' only in its Japanese title—not in terms of function or powers.<ref name="unterstein6_27">[http://www.unterstein.net/ Unterstein (in German)]: [http://www.unterstein.net/or/docs/JapanPeers.pdf Ranks in Ancient and Meiji Japan (in English and French)], pp. 6, 27.</ref>


==Council of State==
==Council of State==
This dry catalog does provide a superficial glimpse inside the complexity of what was initially designed as a pre-feudal court structure. What this list cannot easily explain is how or why the ''Daijō-kan'' turned out to be both flexible and useful across a span of centuries:
This dry catalog does provide a superficial glimpse inside the complexity of what was initially designed as a pre-feudal court structure. What this list cannot easily explain is how or why the ''Daijō-kan'' turned out to be both flexible and useful across a span of centuries:
* 1. {{nihongo|'''Chancellor of the realm or chief minister'''|太政大臣|''[[Daijō daijin]]''}}<ref name="t425">Titsingh, p. 425.</ref>
* {{nihongo|[[Daijō Daijin|Chancellor of the Realm]]|太政大臣|[[Daijō-daijin]]}}<ref name="titsingh425">Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). {{Google books|18oNAAAAIAAJ|''Annales des empereurs du japon,'' p. 425.|page=425}}</ref> See also, {{nihongo|Acting Chancellor|知太政官事|Chi-daijōkanji}}.<ref name="v272">Varley, H. Paul. (1980). ''Jinnō Shōtōki,'' p.272.</ref>
* {{nihongo|[[Sadaijin|Minister of the Left]]|左大臣|[[Sadaijin]]}}.<ref name="titsingh425"/>
** See also, {{nihongo|'''Acting great minister of the council of state'''|知太政官事|''Chi-daijōkanji''}}.<ref name="v272">Varley, H. Paul. (1980). ''Jinnō Shōtōki,'' p.272.</ref>
* 2. {{nihongo|'''Minister of the left'''|左大臣|''[[Sadaijin]]''}}.<ref name="t425">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|[[Udaijin|Minister of the Right]]|右大臣|[[Udaijin]]}}.<ref name="titsingh425"/>
* 3. {{nihongo|'''Minister of the right'''|右大臣|''[[Udaijin]]''}}.<ref name="t425">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|[[Naidaijin|Minister of the Center]]|内大臣|[[Naidaijin]]}}.<ref name="titsingh425"/>
* 4. {{nihongo|'''Minister of the center'''|中大臣|''[[Naidaijin]]''}}.<ref name="t425">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|[[Dainagon|Major Counselor]]|大納言|[[Dainagon]]}}, three positions. There are commonly three ''Dainagon'',<ref name="titsingh425"/> sometimes more.<ref name="unterstein6_27"/>
* 5. {{nihongo|'''Major counselor'''|大納言|''[[Dainagon]]''}} -- three positions. There are commonly three ''Dainagon'',<ref name="t425">[see above]</ref> sometimes more.<ref>[http://www.unterstein.net/ Unterstein (in German)], [http://www.unterstein.net/or/docs/JapanPeers.pdf Ranks in Ancient and Meiji Japan (in English and French)], pp. 6, 27.</ref>
* {{nihongo|[[Chūnagon|Middle Counselor]]|中納言|[[Chūnagon]]}}, three positions. There are commonly three ''Chunagon'',<ref name="titsingh425"/> sometimes more.<ref name="unterstein6_27"/>
* 6. {{nihongo|'''Middle counselor'''|中納言|''[[Chūnagon]]''}}.<ref name="t425">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|[[Shōnagon|Minor Counselor]]|少納言|[[Shōnagon]]}}, three positions. There are commonly three ''Shōnagon''.<ref name="titsingh425"/>
* {{nihongo|[[Sangi (Japan)|Associate Counselor]]|参議|[[Sangi (Japan)|Sangi]]}}.<ref>Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Sangi" in {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 817|page=817}}.</ref> This office functions as a manager of daijō-kan activities within the palace.<ref name="titsingh426">Titsingh, {{Google books|18oNAAAAIAAJ|p. 426.|page=426}}</ref>
* 7. {{nihongo|'''Minor counselor'''|少納言|''Shōnagon''}} -- three positions. There are commonly three ''Shōnagon''.<ref name="t425">[see above]</ref>
* 8. {{nihongo|'''Director of palace affairs'''|参議,|''Sangi''}}. This office functions as a manager of activities within the palace.<ref name="t426">Titsingh, p. 426.</ref>
* {{nihongo|External secretariat|外記|Geki}}. These are specifically named men who act at the sole discretion of the emperor.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* {{nihongo|Major controller of the left|左大弁|Sadaiben}}.<ref name="v272"/> This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Center, Civil Services, Ceremonies, and Popular Affairs.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 9. {{nihongo|'''External secretariat'''|外記|''Geki''}}. These are specifically named men who act at the sole discretion of the emperor.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* 10. {{nihongo|'''Major controller of the left'''|左大弁|''Sadaiben,''}}<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref> This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Center, [[Shikibu-shō|Civil Services]], Ceremonies, and Taxation.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|Major controller of the right|右大弁|Udaiben}}<ref name="v272"/> This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Military, Justice, Treasury and Imperial Household.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* {{nihongo|First assistant controller of the left|左中弁|Sachūben}}.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 11. {{nihongo|'''Major controller of the right'''|右大弁|''Udaiben''}}<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref> This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: [[Hyōbu-shō|Military]], Justice, [[Ministry of Finance (Japan)|Treasury]] and [[Imperial Household Ministry|Imperial Household]].<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* 12. {{nihongo|'''First assistant controller of the left'''|左中弁,|''Sachūben''}}.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|First assistant controller of the right|右中弁|Uchūben}}.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 13. {{nihongo|'''First assistant controller of the right'''|右中弁,|''Uchūben''}}.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|Second assistant controller of the left|左少弁|Sashōben}}.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 14. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant controller of the left'''|左少弁,|''Sashōben''}}.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|Second assistant controller of the right|右少弁|Ushōben}}.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 15. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant controller of the right'''|右少弁,|''Ushōben''}}.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|First secretary of the left|左大史|Sadaishi}}.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 16. {{nihongo|'''First secretary of the left'''|左大史,|''Sadaishi''}}.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|First secretary of the right|右大史|Udaishi}}.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 17. {{nihongo|'''First secretary of the right'''|右大史,|''Udaishi''}}.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>
* {{nihongo|Assistant secretaries of the left or right|史生|Shishō}}, 20 positions. There are twenty officials with this title.<ref name="titsingh426"/>
* 18. {{nihongo|'''Assistant secretaries of the left or right'''|史生,|''Shishō''}} -- 20 positions. There are twenty officials with this title.<ref name="t426">[see above]</ref>


==The Eight Ministries==
==Ritsuryō Eight Ministries==
The [[Asuka period|Asuka]]-, [[Nara period|Nara]]- and [[Heian period|Heian]]-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a multi-faceted bureaucracy focused on serving the needs of the Emperor, the Imperial family, the Imperial household and the Imperial state.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/emphoumin.shtml Ministry of Emperor's Household], Sheffield.</ref>
A mere list of the court titles cannot reveal nearly enough about the actual functioning of the ''Daijō-kan''; but at least the broad hierarchical relationships which are drawn here amongst these court offices become more readily identified in a changing historical context.


Imperial power and prestige would wax and wane during the subsequent [[Kamakura period|Kamakura]]-, [[Kenmu restoration|Kenmu]]-, [[Muromachi period|Muromachi]]-, [[Nanboku-chō period|Nanboku-chō]]-, [[Sengoku period|Sengoku]]-, [[Azuchi–Momoyama period|Azuchi–Momoyama]]-, and [[Edo period|Edo]]-periods; nevertheless, the basic structure of the Imperial household remained largely unchanged. A mere list of the court titles cannot reveal nearly enough about the actual functioning of the ''Daijō-kan''; but the hierarchical relationships sketch a general context.
===I. Ministry of the Center===
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a {{nihongo|'''Ministry of the Center'''|中務省,|''Nakatsukasa-shō''}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/centmin.shtml Ministry of Central Affairs], Sheffield.</ref> This ministry became the governmental agency for matters pertaining to the emperor. Amongst the significant ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref name="t427">Titsingh, p. 427.</ref>
* 19. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the ministry of the center'''|中務卿,|''Nakatsukasa-kyō''}}.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref> This official oversees the inspection of the interior apartments of the palace; and he is granted the privilege of retaining his swords in the presence of the emperor.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 20. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief of the ministry of the center'''|中務大輔,|''Nakatsukasa-taifu''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 21. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant to the chief of the ministry of the center'''|中務少輔,|''"Nakatsukasa-shō''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 22. {{nihongo|'''Third assistant to the chief of the ministry of the center'''|中務大丞,|''Nakatsukasa dai-shō''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 23. {{nihongo|'''Fourth assistant to the chief of the ministry of the center'''|中務少丞,|''Nakatsukasa shō-shō''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 24. {{nihongo|'''Chamberlain'''|侍従,|''Jijū''}} -- 8 positions. There are 8 officials with this title, all equal in rank and in the confidence of the Emperor.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 25. 内舎人 (''Udoneri'') -- 90 positions. There are 90 officials with this title; and when a ''sesshō'' becomes a ''kampaku'', these men function under his orders. If the emperor is still a child, or if a woman occupies the throne, a ''kampaku'' is chosen to represent the emperor; and the ''kampaku'' is considered first amongst all others in Japan. Then the Shogun cannot undertake anything of importance without his approval. When the emperor governs directly on his own, the ''Udoneri'' may be by-passed.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 26. {{nihongo|'''First draftsman/editor'''|大内記,|''Dai-naiki''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 27. {{nihongo|'''Second draftsman/editor'''|少内記,|''Shō-naiki''}}. These officials must be very well versed in the affairs of China and Japan: and they edit or re-draft all of the emperor's edicts, rescripts, memorials and letters. For this kind of work, only men of the highest merit and distinction are chosen.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 28. {{nihongo|'''Drafting clerks'''|監物,|''Kenmotsu''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 29. {{nihongo|'''Chief surveyor of the palace apartments'''|中宮大夫,|''Chūgū daibu''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 30. {{nihongo|'''Assistant surveyor of the palace apartments'''|中宮権大夫,|''Chūgū gon no daibu''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 31. {{nihongo|'''Head chamberlain of the palace'''|内舎人頭,|''Udoneri no kami''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 32. {{nihongo|'''Chief curator of the palace'''|内蔵頭,|''Kura no kami''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 33. {{nihongo|'''Assistant curator of the palace'''|内蔵権頭,|''Kura no gon no kami''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 34. {{nihongo|'''Chief court tailor'''|縫殿頭,|''Nui no kami''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 35. {{nihongo|'''Chief court astrologer'''|陰陽頭,|''On'yō no kami''}}<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref> -- ''see'' [[Onmyōdō]].
* 36. {{nihongo|'''Chief court calendar-maker'''|暦博士,|''Reki hakase''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 37. {{nihongo|'''Chief court astronomer'''|天文博士,|''Tenmon hakase''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 38. {{nihongo|'''Chief court time-keeper'''|漏刻博士,|''Rōkoku hakase''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>
* 39. {{nihongo|'''Chief court architect'''|内匠頭,|''Takumi no kami''}}.<ref name="t427">[see above]</ref>


===II. Ministry of Civil Services===
===Ministry of the Center===
{{Main|Ministry of the Center}}
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a {{nihongo|'''[[Shikibu-shō|Ministry of the Civil Services]]'''|式部省,|''[[Shikibu-shō]]''}}; also known as the "Ministry of Legislative Direction and Public Instruction".<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/civadminmin.shtml Ministry of Civil Administration], Sheffield.</ref> This ministry collected and maintained biographical archives of meritorious subjects.<ref>Ury, Marian. (1999). "Chinese Learning and Intellectual Life," ''The Cambridge history of Japan: Heian Japan'', p. 361.</ref> Amongst the significant ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref name="t427">Titsingh, p. 427.</ref>
* 40. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the ministry of civil services'''|式部卿,|''Shikibu-kyō''}};<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref> also known as Chief minister of public instruction. This office is ordinarily filled by a son or close relative of the emperor. There are seven judges who directly assist this court official:<ref name="t428">Titsingh, p. 428.</ref>
**1. {{nihongo|'''Chief judge'''|式部大輔,|''Shikibu-taifu''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**2. {{nihongo|'''First associate judge'''|式部少輔,|''Shikibu no shō''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**3-4. {{nihongo|'''Second associate judges'''|式部大丞,|''Shikibu no dai-shō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**5-6. {{nihongo|'''Third associate judges'''|式部少丞,|''Shikibu no shō-shō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**7. {{nihongo|'''Alternate adjudicators'''|式部録,|''Shikibu no sakan''}} -- two positions, one superior to the other.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
***{{nihongo|'''Senior alternate adjudicator'''|式部大録,|''Shikibu no dai-sakan''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
***{{nihongo|'''Junior alternate adjudicator'''|式部少録,|''Shikibu no shō-sakan''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
* 41. {{nihongo|'''Chief Education expert'''|大学頭,|''Daigaku no kami''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**1. {{nihongo|'''Chief experts on the history of Japan and China'''|紀伝博士,|''Kiden hakase''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**2. {{nihongo|'''Chief experts on classical Chinese works'''|明経博士,|''Myōgyō hakase''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**3. {{nihongo|'''Chief experts on jurisprudence of Japan and China'''|明法博士,|''Myōbō hakase''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
**4. {{nihongo|'''Chief experts on mathematics'''|算博士,|''San hakase''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
* 42. {{nihongo|'''Chief calligrapher of the court'''|文章博士,|''Monjō hakase''}}. There would have been many copyist calligraphers working under the direction of the chief calligrapher.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
* 43. {{nihongo|'''First Assistant to the chief calligrapher of the court'''|助教,|''Jokyō''}}.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
* 44. {{nihongo|'''Instructors of Japanese and Chinese literature'''|直講,|''Chok'kō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
* 45. {{nihongo|'''Instructors in pronunciation of words'''|音博士,|''On hakase''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
* 46. {{nihongo|'''Instructors in calligraphy'''|書博士,|''Sho hakase''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t428">[see above]</ref>
* 47.
* 48.


The Taihō Code established a {{nihongo|Ministry of the Center|中務省|Nakatsukasa-shō}}, sometimes identified as the "Ministry of Central Affairs."<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/centmin.shtml Ministry of Central Affairs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524225031/http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/centmin.shtml |date=2011-05-24 }}, Sheffield.</ref> This ministry became the governmental agency for matters most closely pertaining to the emperor.
===III. Ministry of Ceremonies===
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a {{nihongo|'''Ministry of the Ceremonies'''|治部省,|''Jibu-shō''}}; also known as the "Ministry of the Interior".<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/ceremmin.shtml Ministry of Ceremonial], Sheffield.</ref> Amongst the significant ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref name="t429">Titsingh, p. 429.</ref>
* 49. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the ministry of ceremonies'''|治部卿,|''Jibu-kyō''}}.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref>
* 50. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief of the ministry of ceremonies'''|治部大輔,|''Jibu-taifu''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 51. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant to the chief of the ministry of ceremonies'''|治部少輔,|''Jibu-shō''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 52. {{nihongo|'''Third assistant to the chief of the ministry of ceremonies'''|治部大丞,|''Jibu dai-shō''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 53. {{nihongo|'''Fourth assistant to the chief of the ministry of ceremonies'''|治部少丞,|''Jibu shō-shō''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 54. {{nihongo|'''Senior alternate assistant to the chief of the ministry of ceremonies'''|治部大録,|''Jibu no dai-sakan''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 55. {{nihongo|'''Junior alternate assistant to the chief of the ministry of ceremonies'''|治部少録,|''Jibu no shō-sakan''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 56. {{nihongo|'''Chief court musician'''|雅楽頭,|''Uta no kami''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 57. {{nihongo|'''First assistant court musician'''|雅楽助,|''Uta no suke''}}.<ref name="t429">[see above]</ref>
* 58. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant court musician'''|雅楽允,|''Uta no jō''}}.<ref name="t430">Titsingh, p. 430.</ref>
* 59. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant court musicians'''|雅楽属,|''Uta no sakan''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 60. {{nihongo|'''Chief interpreter/diplomat'''|玄蕃頭,|''Genba no kami''}}. This official is charged with receiving ambassadors from China and Korean and serving as interpreters for them.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 61. {{nihongo|'''First assistant chief interpreter/diplomat'''|玄蕃介,|''Genba no suke''}}.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 62. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant chief interpreter/diplomat'''|玄蕃允,|''Genba no jō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 63. {{nihongo|'''Alternate interpreter/diplomat'''|玄蕃属,|''Genba no sakan''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 64.{{nihongo|'''Chief inspector of imperial tombs'''|諸陵頭,|''Shoryō no kami''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 65.{{nihongo|'''First assistant inspector of imperial tombs'''|諸陵助,|''Shoryō no suke''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 66. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant inspector of imperial tombs'''|諸陵允,|''Shoryō no jō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 67. {{nihongo|'''Alternate inspectors of imperial tombs'''|諸陵属,|''Shoryō no sakan''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>


In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' official within this subdivision of the ''daijō-kan'' was the {{nihongo|chief administrator of the Ministry of the Center|中務卿|Nakatsukasa-kyō}}.<ref name="v272"/> This official had the responsibility to oversee the inspection of the interior apartments of the palace; and he was granted the privilege of retaining his swords in the presence of the emperor.<ref name="t427">Titsingh, p. 427.</ref>
===IV. Ministry of Taxation===
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a {{nihongo|'''Ministry of Taxation'''|民部省,|''Minbu-shō''}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/popaffmin.shtml Ministry of Popular Affairs], Sheffield.</ref> Amongst the significant ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref name="t430">[see above].</ref>
* 68. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the ministry of taxation'''|民部卿,|''Minbu-kyō''}}.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref> The Chief Minister who concerns himself with the people's affairs, with the general police, and with land survey records. In this ministry, registries for all towns and villages are maintained, which include census records of general population, records of births and records of deaths.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 69. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief of the ministry of taxation'''|民部大輔,|''Minbu-taifu''}}.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 70. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant to the chief of the ministry of taxation'''|民部少輔,|''Minbu-shō''}}.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 71. {{nihongo|'''Senior taxation undersecretaries'''|民部丞,|''"Minbu no jō}} -- four positions. There would have been four undersecretaries, two of whom would have been considered superior to the other two:
** {{nihongo|'''Junior taxation undersecretary'''|民部少,|''Minbu-shō''}}.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
** {{nihongo|'''Alternate taxation undersecretary'''|民部録,|''Minbu no sakan''}}.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 72. {{nihongo|'''Chief steward'''|主計頭,|''Kazue no kami''}}. In former times, when the Emperor enjoyed the full exercise of all his powers, this court official would have supervised gathering of all tax revenues and imperial expenditures throughout the country; but from the 12th century, the activities of this steward were more narrowly focused on the revenue and expenditures of the court itself.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 73. {{nihongo|'''Assistant to the chief steward'''|主計助,|''Kazue no suke''}}.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 74. {{nihongo|'''Chief comptroller'''|主計允,|''Kazue no jō''}} -- two positions. These officials were charged with overseeing financial accounts.<ref name="t430">[see above]</ref>
* 75. {{nihongo|'''Assistant comptroller'''|主計属,|''Kazue no sakan''}} -- two positions. These officials were aides to the chief comptrollers.<ref name="t431">Titsingh, p. 431.</ref>
* 76. {{nihongo|'''Chief food inspector'''|主税頭,|''Chikara no kami''}}.<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
* 77. {{nihongo|'''Assistant food inspector'''|主税介,|''Chikara no suke''}}. All food which might be served to the emperor was scrupulously examined by the food inspectors; and the rice is counted grain-by-grain so that the emperor is given exactly the same amount each day.<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>


Considered central were the {{nihongo|[[Chamberlain of Japan|Emperor's equerries]]|侍従,|[[Jijū]]}}, 8 positions. There are 8 officials with this title, all equal in rank and in the confidence of the Emperor.<ref name="t427"/> In the [[Meiji period]], a variant equerry was introduced as part of the Imperial retinue. As explained in an excerpt from the {{nihongo|113th Imperial decree of 1896 (''Meiji 29'')|明治29年勅令第113号}}: "{{nihongo|[[Aide-de-camp to the Emperor of Japan|Aides-de-camp to the Emperor of Japan]]|侍従武官|[[jijū|jijū bukan]]}} will perform attendant duties and will relay to him military matters and orders, be present at military reviews [in his name] and accompanying him to formal ceremonies and interviews."<ref>侍従武官ハ天皇ニ常侍奉仕シ軍事ニ関スル奏上奉答及命令ノ伝達ニ任シ観兵演習行幸其他祭儀礼典宴会謁見等ニ陪侍扈従ス</ref>
===V. Ministry of the Military===
The Imperial court's {{nihongo|'''[[Hyōbu-shō|Ministry of the Military]]'''|兵部省,|''"[[Hyōbu-shō]]"''}} changed significantly across the centuries, mirroring the ebb and flow of Imperial power and influence; and yet, the essential relationships within the ''ritsuryō'' structure remained largely unchanged throughout the serial reigns of Japanese sovereigns.


===Ministry of Civil Services===
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse"
{{Main|Shikibu-sho}}
|-
!colspan="5" |'''MINISTRY OF MILITARY ([[Edo period]])'''
|-
! width="40%" | Title
! width="15%" | [[Kanji]]
! width="15%" | [[Romanization]]
! width="30%" | Notes
|-
|colspan="90%" |The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a ministry dealing with military affairs.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/warmin.shtml Ministry of War], Sheffield.</ref> Amongst the significant ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|-
|'''Minister or chief official '''
|兵部卿
|''Hyōbu-kyō''
|Usually a son or a close relative of the Emperor.<ref>Varley, Paul. (1980). ''Jinnō Shōtōki'', p. 272; Titsingh, p. 431.</ref>
|-
|'''First assistant to the Minister'''
|兵部大輔
|''Hyōbu-taifu''
|...<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|-
|'''Second assistant to the Minister'''
|兵部少輔
|''Hyōbu-shō''
|...<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|-
|'''Primary staff officer'''
|兵部大丞
|''Hyōbu no dai-jō''
|...<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|-
|'''Secondary staff officers'''
|兵部少丞
|''Hyōbu no shō-jō''
|Two positions.<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|-
|-
|'''Director of dance'''
|隼人正
|''Hayato no kami''
|Considered a very low rank.<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|-
|'''First assistant director'''
|隼人佑
|''Hayato no jō''
|...<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|-
|'''Alternate assistant director'''
|隼人令史
|''Hayato no sakan''
|...<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
|}


The Taihō Code established a {{nihongo|Ministry of the Civil Services|式部省|Shikibu-shō}}; also known as the "Ministry of Legislative Direction and Public Instruction".<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/civadminmin.shtml Ministry of Civil Administration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207171103/http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/civadminmin.shtml |date=2012-02-07 }}, Sheffield.</ref> This ministry collected and maintained biographical archives of meritorious subjects.<ref>Ury, Marian. (1999). "Chinese Learning and Intellectual Life," ''The Cambridge history of Japan: Heian Japan'', p. 361.</ref>
===VI. Ministry of Justice===
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a {{nihongo|'''Ministry of Justice'''|刑部省,|''Gyōbu-shō''}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/justmin.shtml Ministry of Justice], Sheffield.</ref> Amongst the significant ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
* 86. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the ministry of justice'''|刑部卿,|''Gyōbu-kyō''}}.<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
* 87. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief of the ministry of justice'''|刑部大輔|''Gyōbu-taifu''}}.<ref name="t431">[see above]</ref>
* 88. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant to the chief of the ministry of justice'''|刑部少輔,|''Gyōbu-shō''}}.<ref name="t432">Titsingh, p. 432.</ref>
* 89. {{nihongo|'''Senior ministry of justice undersecretary'''|刑部丞,|''Gyōbu no jō''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 90. {{nihongo|'''Alternate of justice undersecretary'''|刑部録,|''Gyōbu no sakan''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 91. {{nihongo|'''Chief judge'''|大判事,|''Dai-hanji''}}. There are three classes of officials under the control of the chief judge.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 92. {{nihongo|'''First assistants to the chief judge'''|中判事,|''Chū-hanji''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 93. {{nihongo|'''Second assistants to the chief judge'''|少判事,|''Shō-hanji''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 94. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistants to the chief judge'''|判事属,|''Hanji no sakan''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 95. {{nihongo|'''Chief prison warden'''|囚獄正,|''Shūgoku no kami''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 96. {{nihongo|'''First assistant prison warden'''|囚獄佑,|''Shūgoku no jō''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 97. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant prison warden'''|囚獄令史,|''Shūgoku no sakan''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>


In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' official within this subdivision of the ''daijō-kan'' was the {{nihongo|chief administrator of the Ministry of Civil Services|式部卿|Shikibu-kyō}};<ref name="t428">Titsingh, p. 428.</ref> also known as "Chief minister of public instruction." This office is ordinarily filled by a son or close relative of the emperor. Two of the offices which were deemed to fit in this "civil services" context were the Imperial court's {{nihongo|Chief judge|式部大輔|Shikibu-taifu}}.<ref name="t428"/> and the Emperor's {{nihongo|[[Daigaku-no-kami|chief education expert]]|大学頭|[[Daigaku no kami]]}}.<ref name="t428"/>
===VII. Ministry of the Treasury===
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a {{nihongo|'''[[Ministry of Finance (Japan)|Ministry of the Treasury]]'''|大蔵省,|''[[Okurasho|Ōkura-shō]]''}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/tremin.shtml Ministry of the Treasury], Sheffield.</ref> Amongst the significant ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 98. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the ministry of the treasury'''|大蔵卿,|''Ōkura-kyō''}}.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref> This official supervises the receipt of tributes from the provinces and imposes tribute on others.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 99. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the ministry of the treasury'''|大蔵大輔,|''Ōkura-taifu''}}.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref>
* 100. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief of the ministry of the treasury'''|大蔵少輔,|''Ōkura-shō''}}.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref>
* 101. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant to the chief of the ministry of the treasury'''|大蔵丞,|''Ōkura no jō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref>
* 102. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant to the chief of the ministry of the treasury'''|大蔵録,|''Ōkura no sakan''}} -- two positions.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref>
* 103. {{nihongo|'''Collector of taxation from manufactureres and dyers'''|織部正,|''Oribe no kami''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 104. {{nihongo|'''Assistant collector of taxation from manufactureres and dyers'''|織部佑,|''Oribe no jō''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>
* 105. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant collector of taxation from manufactureres and dyers'''|織部令史,|''Oribe no sakan''}}.<ref name="t432">[see above]</ref>


===VIII. Ministry of the Imperial Household===
===Ministry of Ceremonies===
{{Main|Ministry of Ceremonies (Japan)}}
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a {{nihongo|'''[[Imperial Household Ministry|Ministry of the Imperial Household]]'''|宮内省,|''[[Kunaishō|Kunai-shō]]''}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/emphoumin.shtml Ministry of Emperor's Household], Sheffield.</ref> The origin of the current [[Imperial Household Agency]] can be traced back to the provisions on the government structure which were put into effect during the reign of [[Emperor Monmu]],<ref>[http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e15/ed15-01.html History of Imperial Household Agency]</ref> with significant modifications in 1702, 1870, and 1889,<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08297a.htm "Ministry of the Imperial Household"], ''Catholic Encyclopedia.''</ref> ''Daijō-kan'' officials within this ministry structure were:<ref>Titsingh, p. 433; Sansom, George. ''Japan: A Short Cultural History,'' pp. 104, 164.</ref>
* 106. {{nihongo|'''Chief administrator of the imperial household'''|宮内卿,|''Kunai-kyō''}} -- the surveyor of all works which are executed within the interior of the palace.<ref name="v272">[see above]</ref>
* 107. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief of the imperial Household'''|宮内大輔,|''Kunai-taifu''}}.<ref name="t433">Titsingh, p. 433</ref>
* 108. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant to the chief of the imperial household'''|宮内少輔,|''Kunai-shō''}} -- two persons.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 109. {{nihongo|'''Third assistant to the chief of the imperial household'''|宮内丞,|''Kunai no jō''}} -- two persons.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 110. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistants to the chief of the imperial household'''|宮内録,|''Kunai no sakan''}} -- two persons.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 111. {{nihongo|'''Chief steward of the imperial household'''|大膳大夫,|''Daizen-taifu''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 112. {{nihongo|'''Chief steward of the imperial household'''|大膳亮,|''Daizen no suke''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 113. {{nihongo|'''Assistant chief steward of the imperial household'''|大膳大進,|''Daizen no daishin''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 114. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant steward of the imperial household'''|大膳属,|''Daizen no sakan''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 115. {{nihongo|'''Chief carpenter/cabinet-maker'''|木工頭,|''Moku no kami''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 116. {{nihongo|'''Assistant chief carpenter/cabinet-maker'''|木工助,|''Moku no suke''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 117. {{nihongo|'''Master carpenters/cabinet-maker'''|木工允,|''Moku no jō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 118. {{nihongo|'''Carpenter/cabinet-maker'''|木工属,|''Moku no sakan''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 119. {{nihongo|'''Chief estimator/adjustor'''|算師,|''Sanshi''}}. An expert who evaluates the price/cost of work to be done or already completed.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 120. {{nihongo|'''Chief storekeeper/Palace kitchens manager'''|大炊頭,|''Ōi no kami''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 121. {{nihongo|'''First assistant storekeeper/Palace kitchens manager'''|大炊助,|''Ōi no suke''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 122. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant storekeeper/Palace kitchens manager'''|大炊允,|''Ōi no jō''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 123. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant storekeeper/Palace kitchens manager'''|大炊属,|''Ōi no sakan''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 124. {{nihongo|'''Chief surveyor of apartments and furniture'''|主殿頭,|''Tonomo no kami''}}.<ref name="t433">[see above]</ref>
* 125. {{nihongo|'''First assistant surveyor of apartments and furniture'''|主殿助,|''Tonomo no suke''}}.<ref name="t434">Titsingh, p. 434.</ref>
* 126. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant surveyor of apartments and furniture'''|主殿充,|''Tonomo no jō''}} -- two positions.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 127. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant surveyors of apartments and furniture'''|主殿属,|''Tonomo no sakan''}} - two positions.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 128. {{nihongo|'''Chief pharmacist'''|典薬頭,|''Ten'yaku no kami''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 129. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief pharmacist'''|典薬助|,''Ten'yaku no suke''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 130. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant to the chief pharmacist'''|典薬允|,''Ten'yaku no jō''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 131. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant to the chief pharmacist'''|典薬属|,''Ten'yaku no sakan''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 132. {{nihongo|'''Chief physician'''|医博士,|'I hakase''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 133. {{nihongo|'''Female physician'''|女医博士,|''Nyo'i hakase''}}. No male physician would be permitted to care for the health of the emperor's women.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 134. {{nihongo|'''Chief acupuncturist'''|針博士,|''Shin hakase''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 135. {{nihongo|'''Emperor's personal physician'''|侍医,|''Ji'i''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 136. {{nihongo|'''Emperor's second personal physician'''|権侍医,|''Gon no ji'i''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 137. {{nihongo|'''Emperor's alternate personal physician'''|医師,|''Ishi''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 138. {{nihongo|'''Surveyor of housekeeping'''|掃部頭,|''Kamon no kami''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 139. {{nihongo|'''First assistant surveyor of housekeeping'''|掃部助,|''Kamon no suke''}}.<ref name="t434">[see above]</ref>
* 140. {{nihongo|'''Second assistant surveyor of housekeeping'''|掃部允,|''Kamon no jō''}}.<ref name="t435">Titsingh, p. 435.</ref>
* 141. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant surveyor of housekeeping'''|掃部属,|''Kamon no sakan''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 142. {{nihongo|'''Chief genealogist of the imperial family'''|正親正,|''Ōkimi no kami''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 143. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief genealogist'''|正親佑,|''Ōkimi no jō''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 144. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant to the chief genealogist'''|正親令史,|''Ōkimi no sakan''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 145. {{nihongo|'''First cupbearer to the Emperor'''|内膳正,|''Naizen no kami''}}. This courtier doesn't actually serve the emperor directly; rather, he is only the overseer of those who are actual cupbearers.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 146. {{nihongo|'''Cupbearer to the Emperor'''|奉膳,|''Buzen''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 147. {{nihongo|'''Assistant cupbearer'''|典膳,|''Tenzen''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 148. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant cupbearer'''|内膳令史,|''Naizen sakan''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 149. {{nihongo|'''Chief sake maker'''|酒造正,|''Miki no kami''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 150. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the chief sake maker'''|酒造佑,|''Miki no jō''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>|
* 151. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant to the chief sake maker'''|酒造令史,|''Miki no sakan''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 152. {{nihongo|'''Surveyor of the Emperor's women'''|采女正,|''Uneme no kami''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 153. {{nihongo|'''Assistant surveyor of the Emperor's women'''|采女佑,|''Uneme no jō''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 154. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant surveyor of the Emperor's women'''|采女令史,|''Uneme no sakan''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 155. {{nihongo|'''Head of the water supply bureau'''|主水正,|''Mondo no kami''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 156. {{nihongo|'''First assistant to the head of the water supply bureau'''|主水佑,|''Mondo no jō''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>
* 157. {{nihongo|'''Alternate assistant to the head of the water supply bureau'''|主水令史,|''Mondo no sakan''}}.<ref name="t435">[see above]</ref>


The Taihō Code established a {{nihongo|Ministry of Ceremonies|治部省|Jibu-shō}}; also known as the "Ministry of the Interior".<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/ceremmin.shtml Ministry of Ceremonies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524225044/http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/ceremmin.shtml |date=2011-05-24 }}, Sheffield.</ref>
==Tokugawa Courtiers==
Even nominal administrative powers of court officials reached a nadir during the years of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. In this impoverished period, titles and court rank were still prized by those outside the traditional ''kuge''. The Tokugawa shoguns did not demur when the emperor offered rank and an office in the court:
* [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] had the rank of ''Jūichii'' (First Rank, Second Class) and the office of ''Udaijin'' (Great Minister of the Right, i.e., inferior to the Minister of the Left).<ref>Screech, T. (2006). ''Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822,'' pp. 157. [''Error in published text was corrected: ''Udaijin'' is Minister of the Right -- not Left.'']</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] had the rank of ''Jūichii'' and was ''Daijō Daijin'' (the Great Minister or Chancellor of the Realm).<ref name="s157">Screech, pp. 157.</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]] had the same rank and was ''Sadaijin'' (Great Minister of the Left, i.e., superior to the Minister of the Right).<ref>Screech, pp. 157. [''Error in published text was corrected: ''Sadaijin'' is Minister of the Left - not Right.'']</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ietsuna]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' (Second Rank, First Class) and was ''Udaijin.''<ref name="s157">[see above]</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin.''<ref name="s157">[see above]</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ienobu]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' was ''[[Nadaijin]]'' (Great Minister of the Center, i.e., inferior to the Minister of the Left).<ref>Screech, pp. 157. [''Error in published text was corrected: ''Nadaijin'' is Minister of the Left - not Right.''].</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ietsugu]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' was also ''Nadaijin.''<ref name="s157">[see above]</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Yoshimune]] held the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin.''<ref name="s157">[see above]</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ieshige]] also held the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin.''<ref name="s157">[see above]</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ieharu]] also held the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin.''<ref name="s157">[see above]</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ienari]] was ''Dainagon'' (Great Counselor).<ref name="s157">[see above]</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ieyoshi]] ....
* [[Tokugawa Iesada]] ....
* [[Tokugawa Iemochi]] ....


In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' official within this subdivision of the ''daijō-kan'' was the {{nihongo|[[Master of Ceremonies (Japan)|chief administrator of the Ministry of Ceremonies]]|治部卿,|[[Jibu-kyō]]}}.<ref name="v272"/>
==Geo-political sub-divisions==
The country was divided into provinces called ''[[Provinces of Japan|kuni]]'' (国), which were administered by governors (<!-- ''kami'', -->''[[kokushi]]'', 国司) appointed by the ''Daijō-kan''. The provinces were then further divided into districts called ''gun'' (郡) or ''kōri'', under district governors (''gunji'', 郡司) who were appointed by the local nobility. At the beginning of the eighth century there were 592 districts making up 66 provinces.


===Ministry of Popular Affairs===
==References==
{{Main|Ministry of Popular Affairs}}
{{reflist|2}}


The Taihō Code established a {{nihongo|Ministry of Popular Affairs|民部省|Minbu-shō}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/popaffmin.shtml Ministry of Popular Affairs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727092428/http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/popaffmin.shtml |date=2011-07-27 }}, Sheffield.</ref> This ministry is concerned with the general populace, with police activities, and with land survey records. Registries for all towns and villages are maintained, including census records as well as birth and death records.<ref name="t430">Titsingh, p. 430.</ref>


In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' official within this subdivision of the ''daijō-kan'' was the {{nihongo| chief administrator of the Ministry of Popular Affairs|民部卿|Minbu-kyō}}.<ref name="t430"/>
* {{ja icon}} Asai T. (1985). ''Nyokan Tūkai''. Tokyo: [[Kōdansha]].
* [[Yukio Ozaki|Ozaki]], Yukio. (2001). ''The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan.'' [Translated by Fujiko Hara]. Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-691-05095-3 (cloth)
* {{ja icon}} Ozaki, Yukio. (1955). ''Ozak Gakudō Zenshū.'' Tokyo: Kōronsha.
* [[George Bailey Sansom|Sansom]], George (1958). ''A History of Japan to 1334.'' Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]]. ISBN 0-8047-0523-2
* Sansom, George. (1952). ''Japan: A Short Cultural History.'' Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-804-70952-1; 13-ISBN 978-0-804-70952-1 (cloth) 10-ISBN 0-804-70954-8; 13-ISBN 978-0-804-70954-5 (paper)
* [[Timon Screech|Screech]], Timon. (2006). ''Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822.'' London: [[RoutledgeCurzon]]. ISBN 0-7007-1720-X
* [[Isaac Titsingh |Titsingh]], Isaac. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/[[Hayashi Gahō]], 1652], ''[[Nipon o daï itsi ran]]; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, tr. par M. Isaac Titsingh avec l'aide de plusieurs interprètes attachés au comptoir hollandais de Nangasaki; ouvrage re., complété et cor. sur l'original japonais-chinois, accompagné de notes et précédé d'un Aperçu d'histoire mythologique du Japon, par M. J. [[Julius Klaproth |Klaproth]].'' Paris: [[Royal Asiatic Society |Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland]].[http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran ...Click link to digitized, full-text copy of this book (in French)]
* Ury, Marian. (1999). "Chinese Learning and Intellectual Life," ''The Cambridge history of Japan: Heian Japan''. Vol. II. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. 10-ISBN 0-521-22353-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-521-22353-9 (cloth)
* Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ [[Kitabatake Chikafusa]], 1359], ''[[Jinnō Shōtōki]] ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. ISBN 0-231-04940-4


===See also===
===Ministry of War===
{{Main|Ministry of War (pre-modern Japan)}}
* [[Taihō Code]]
The Taihō Code established a {{nihongo|Ministry of War|兵部省|Hyōbu-shō}}.<ref name="t431">Titsingh, p. 431.</ref>
* [[Yōrō Code]]


In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' official within this subdivision of the ''daijō-kan'' was the {{nihongo|chief administrator of the Ministry of War|兵部卿|Hyōbu-kyō}}.<ref name="t431"/>
* [[Twelve Level Cap and Rank System]]


===Ministry of Justice===
* [[Kugyō]]
{{Main|Ministry of Justice (pre-modern Japan)}}
* [[Sessho and Kampaku]]

The Taihō Code established a {{nihongo|Ministry of Justice|刑部省|Gyōbu-shō}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/justmin.shtml Ministry of Justice]{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727091622/http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/justmin.shtml |archive-date=27 July 2011}}, Sheffield.</ref>

In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' official within this subdivision of the ''daijō-kan'' was the {{nihongo|chief administrator of the ministry of justice|刑部卿|Gyōbu-kyō}}.<ref name="t431"/>

===Ministry of the Treasury===
{{Main|Ministry of the Treasury}}

The Taihō Code established a {{nihongo|Ministry of the Treasury|大蔵省|Ōkura-shō}}.<ref>[http://www.temcauley.staff.shef.ac.uk/tremin.shtml Ministry of the Treasury], Sheffield.</ref>

In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' official within this subdivision of the ''daijō-kan'' was the {{nihongo|chief administrator of the ministry of the treasury|大蔵卿|Ōkura-kyō}}. This official supervises the receipt of tributes from the provinces and imposes tribute on others.<ref name="t432">Titsingh, p. 432.</ref>

===Ministry of the Imperial Household===
{{Main|Ministry of the Imperial Household}}

The Taihō Code established a {{Nihongo|[[Ministry of the Imperial Household]]|宮内省|Kunai-shō}}. The origins of the current {{Nihongo|[[Imperial Household Agency]]|宮内庁|Kunai-chō}} can be traced back to structures which were put into effect during the reign of [[Emperor Monmu]],<ref>[http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e15/ed15-01.html History of Imperial Household Agency] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215123901/http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/e15/ed15-01.html |date=2007-12-15 }}</ref> with some subsequent modifications.

In 1702, the Taika era name for the palace organization, ''kunai<u>-kan</u>'' or "government" of the palace, was changed to the ''kunai<u>-shō</u>'' or "ministry" of the palace. Accompanying this modification, the chief administrative official was afterwards called ''kunai-kyō''. After the [[Meiji Restoration]], the ''kunai-shō'' name remained unchanged. There were two other periods of modification and in 1889.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08297a.htm "Ministry of the Imperial Household"], ''Catholic Encyclopedia.''</ref>

In the 18th century, the top ''ritsuryō'' officials within this hierarchic structure were:
* {{nihongo|Chief administrator of the Imperial household|宮内卿|Kunai-kyō}}, the surveyor of all works which are executed within the interior of the palace.<ref name="v272"/>
* {{nihongo|First assistant to the chief of the imperial Household|宮内大輔|Kunai-taifu}}.<ref name="t433">Titsingh, p. 433</ref>
* {{nihongo|Second assistant to the chief of the imperial household|宮内少輔|Kunai-shō}}, two persons.<ref name="t433"/>
* {{nihongo|Third assistant to the chief of the imperial household|宮内丞|Kunai-no-jō}}, two persons.<ref name="t433"/>
* {{nihongo|Alternate assistants to the chief of the imperial household|宮内録|Kunai-no-sakan}}, two persons.<ref name="t433"/>

The deliberate redundancies at the top were common features of each position in this stable hierarchic [[Model (abstract)|schema]]. Many positions typically mirrored the ''-kyō,'' ''-taifu,'' ''-shō,'' ''-jō,'' and ''-sakan'' pattern.<ref>Titsingh, pp. 425-435.</ref>

==Tokugawa courtiers==
Even nominal administrative powers of court officials reached a nadir during the years of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. In this impoverished period, titles and court rank were still prized by those outside the traditional ''kuge''. The Tokugawa shōguns did not demur when the Emperor offered rank and an office in the court:
* [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] had the rank of ''Jūichii'' (First Rank, Second Class) and the office of ''Udaijin'' (Great Minister of the Right, i.e., inferior to the Minister of the Left)<ref>Screech, T. (2006). ''Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822,'' pp. 157. [''Error in published text was corrected: ''Udaijin'' is Minister of the Right -- not Left.'']</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Hidetada]] had the rank of ''Jūichii'' and was ''Daijō Daijin'' (the Great Minister or Chancellor of the Realm)<ref name="s157">Screech, pp. 157.</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]] had the same rank and was ''Sadaijin'' (Great Minister of the Left, i.e., superior to the Minister of the Right)<ref>Screech, pp. 157. [''Error in published text was corrected: ''Sadaijin'' is Minister of the Left - not Right.'']</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ietsuna]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' (Second Rank, First Class) and was ''Udaijin''<ref name="s157" />
* [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin''<ref name="s157" />
* [[Tokugawa Ienobu]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' was ''[[Naidaijin]]'' (Great Minister of the center, i.e., inferior to the Minister of the Left)<ref>Screech, pp. 157. [''Error in published text was corrected: ''Nadaijin'' is Minister of the Left - not Right.''].</ref>
* [[Tokugawa Ietsugu]] had the rank of ''Shōnii'' was also ''Nadaijin''<ref name="s157" />
* [[Tokugawa Yoshimune]] held the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin''<ref name="s157" />
* [[Tokugawa Ieshige]] also held the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin''<ref name="s157" />
* [[Tokugawa Ieharu]] also held the rank of ''Shōnii'' and was ''Udaijin''<ref name="s157" />
* [[Tokugawa Ienari]] was ''Dainagon'' (Great Counselor)<ref name="s157" />
* [[Tokugawa Ieyoshi]]
* [[Tokugawa Iesada]]
* [[Tokugawa Iemochi]]
* [[Tokugawa Yoshinobu]]

==Geo-political sub-divisions==
The country was divided into provinces called {{Nihongo||国|[[Provinces of Japan|kuni]]}}, which were administered by governors {{Nihongo||国司|[[Kokushi (official)|kokushi]]}} appointed by the ''Daijō-kan''. The provinces were then further divided into districts called {{Nihongo||郡|gun|/kōri}}, under district governors {{Nihongo||郡司|gunji}} who were appointed by the local nobility. At the beginning of the eighth century, there were 592 districts making up 66 provinces.

==See also==
* [[Engishiki]]
* [[Imperial Household Agency]]
* [[Kōkyū]]
* [[Kōkyū]]
* [[Kuge]]
* [[Kuge]]
* [[Kugyō]]
* [[Sesshō and Kampaku]]
* [[Taihō Code]]
* [[Takahashi Ujibumi]]
* [[Twelve Level Cap and Rank System]]
* [[Yōrō Code]]


==Notes==
* [[Imperial Household Agency]]
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* Asai T. (1985). ''Nyokan Tūkai'' {{in lang|ja}}. Tokyo: [[Kōdansha]].
* Dickenson, Walter G. (1869). ''Japan: Being a Sketch of the History, Government and Officers of the Empire.'' London: W. Blackwood and Sons. {{OCLC|10716445}}
* [[John Whitney Hall|Hall]], John Whitney, Delmer M. Brown and Kozo Yamamura. (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=nCJwEDzyxNgC ''The Cambridge History of Japan.''] Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-22352-2}}
* [[Yukio Ozaki|Ozaki]], Yukio. (2001). ''The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan.'' [Translated by Fujiko Hara]. Princeton: [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-691-05095-3}} (cloth)
* Ozaki, Yukio. (1955). ''Ozak Gakudō Zenshū'' {{in lang|ja}}. Tokyo: Kōronsha.
* [[George Bailey Sansom|Sansom]], George (1958). ''A History of Japan to 1334.'' Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8047-0523-2}}
* Sansom, George. (1952). ''Japan: A Short Cultural History.'' Stanford: [[Stanford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0952-1}} (cloth) {{ISBN|978-0-8047-0954-5}} (paper)
* [[Timon Screech|Screech]], Timon. (2006). ''Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822.'' London: [[RoutledgeCurzon]]. {{ISBN|0-7007-1720-X}}
* [[Isaac Titsingh|Titsingh]], Isaac. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/[[Hayashi Gahō]], 1652], ''[[Nipon o daï itsi ran]]; ou, [https://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&q=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.''] Paris: [[Royal Asiatic Society|Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland]].
* Ury, Marian. (1999). "Chinese Learning and Intellectual Life," ''The Cambridge history of Japan: Heian Japan''. Vol. II. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-22353-9}} (cloth)
* [[H. Paul Varley|Varley]], H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ [[Kitabatake Chikafusa]], 1359], ''[[Jinnō Shōtōki]] ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley).'' New York: [[Columbia University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-231-04940-4}}
{{Refend}}


==External links==
==External links==
* National Archives of Japan [http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/dajoukanshinchikuzu_e.html ...Drawings of the Dajokan Building (November, 1877)]
*[[National Archives of Japan]] – [https://web.archive.org/web/20091124223638/http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/dajoukanshinchikuzu_e.html Drawings of the Dajokan Building (November, 1877)]
* National Archives of Japan [http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/dajoukanshinchikuezu_e.html ...Illustration of the new Dajokan Building (1877)]
* National Archives of Japan – [https://web.archive.org/web/20091124223633/http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/dajoukanshinchikuezu_e.html Illustration of the new Dajokan Building (1877)]
* National Archives of Japan [http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/naimusyo_e.html ...Drawings for construction of the new building housing the ministries of Home Affairs and Finance (1874)]
* National Archives of Japan – [https://web.archive.org/web/20091124223711/http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/naimusyo_e.html Drawings for construction of the new building housing the ministries of Home Affairs and Finance (1874)]
* National Archives of Japan [http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/koseki_e.html ...Request concerning family registration statistics (1869)]
* National Archives of Japan – [https://web.archive.org/web/20080208213302/http://jpimg.digital.archives.go.jp/kouseisai/category/drawing/koseki_e.html Request concerning family registration statistics (1869)]


{{JapanEmpireNavbox}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Daijo-kan}}
[[Category:Government of feudal Japan]]
[[Category:Government of feudal Japan]]
[[Category:Meiji Restoration]]
[[Category:Meiji Restoration]]
[[Category:Government of Japan]]
[[Category:Classical Japan]]
[[Category:Government ministers of Japan]]
[[Category:Former government ministries of Japan]]


[[es:Daijō-kan]]
[[fr:Dajōkan]]
[[ja:太政官]]
[[uk:Дайдзьокан]]

Latest revision as of 16:23, 3 May 2024

Premodern Japan
Imperial seal of Japan
Part of a series on the politics and
government of Japan during the
Nara and Heian periods
Daijō-daijin
Minister of the LeftSadaijin
Minister of the RightUdaijin
Minister of the CenterNaidaijin
Major CounselorDainagon
Middle CounselorChūnagon
Minor CounselorShōnagon
Eight Ministries
CenterNakatsukasa-shō  
CeremonialShikibu-shō
Civil AdministrationJibu-shō
Popular AffairsMinbu-shō
WarHyōbu-shō
JusticeGyōbu-shō
TreasuryŌkura-shō
Imperial HouseholdKunai-shō

The Daijō-kan or Dajō-kan (Japanese: 太政官),[1] also known as the Great Council of State, was (i) (Daijō-kan) the highest organ of Japan's premodern Imperial government under the Ritsuryō legal system during and after the Nara period or (ii) (Dajō-kan) the highest organ of Japan's government briefly restored to power after the Meiji Restoration, which was replaced by the Cabinet.

It was consolidated in the Taihō Code of 702. The Asuka Kiyomihara Code of 689 marks the initial appearance of this central administrative body composed of the three ministers—the Daijō-daijin (Chancellor), the Sadaijin (Minister of the Left) and the Udaijin (Minister of the Right).[2]

The Imperial governing structure was headed by the Daijō-kan. This council and its subsidiary ministries handled all secular administrative affairs of the country, while the Jingi-kan or Department of Worship, oversaw all matters regarding Shintō ritual, clergy, and shrines.

This structured organization gradually lost power over the 10th and 11th centuries, as the Fujiwara clan, dominating the post of Imperial regent, began to dominate the Daijō-kan as well. It became increasingly common for the regent to hold the post of chancellor or other office simultaneously. By the 12th century, the council was essentially powerless as a separate entity, though it seems clear that the system was never formally dismantled. Over centuries, the ritsuryō state produced more and more information which was carefully archived; however, over time in the Heian period, ritsuryō institutions evolved into a political and cultural system without feedback.[3]

By the time of the Emperor Kōmei, the kuge aristocracy was joined in common goals by several newly powerful provincial figures from outside Kyoto. Together, this tenuous, undefined coalition of men worked to restore the long latent prestige, persuasive power, and active strengths of a re-invigorated Imperial center. This combination of factors thrust an archaic hierarchy into the center of national attention, but with so many other high-priority matters demanding immediate attention, there was little time or energy to invest in reforming or re-organizing the Daijō-kan.

Ritsuryō organization and hierarchy[edit]

The eighth century ritsuryō innovations would prove to be remarkably durable and resilient across the span of centuries.[4]

Any exercise of meaningful powers of court officials reached its nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate, and yet the Daijō-kan did manage to persist intact through the initial years of the Meiji Restoration.[5] It is not possible to assess or evaluate any individual office without assessing its role in the context of a durable yet flexible network and hierarchy of functionaries.[6]

In the early Meiji period, the appointed Imperial Daijo-kan was filled with princes, aristocrats, loyalists domain lords (daimyō), and samurai.[7]

Within months after Emperor Meiji's Charter Oath, the ancient ritsuryō structure was slightly modified with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within the Daijō-kan system.[8] The evolution of a deliberative body within a modern constitutional system was gradual, and its constituent differences from the old Daijō-kan were not entirely self-evident at first, as revealed in an Imperial message in 1869:

The Assembly shall be for the wide ranging consultation of public opinion and, respecting the Imperial will which laid the foundations of national government, it will be a place where the energies of the multitude are harnessed. Thus, it is necessary that proceedings will show respect for the Imperial rescript, be united in purpose with the Daijō-kan, take the fundamentals of government to heart, judiciously address matters which arise, and act to ensure that unity within the country is not compromised.[9]

Some months later, another major reform of the Daijō-kan re-united the legislative and executive functions which had been clearly separated earlier.[9]

In 1871, The office of Daijō-daijin in the Great Council of State was briefly resurrected under the Meiji Constitution with the appointment of Sanjō Sanetomi. Despite the similarity of names for its constituent offices, this Daijō-kan would have been unrecognizable to Fujiwara courtiers of the Heian period. Nor would it have seemed at all familiar to those men who surrounded the emperor in the days of the Kenmu Restoration. In due course, it was decided that a modern integrated cabinet system would better serve a modern Japan. The Daijō-kan system, which had been divided into ministerial committees, would be replaced by a more modern model.

In December 1885, the old system was abolished completely;[10] and yet, even afterwards, some elements of old system were adapted to new uses. For example, in that year, the title of Naidaijin was reconfigured to mean the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan in the Imperial Court.[11] The man who had previously held the office of prime minister or chief minister of the initial restoration government was the Daijō-daijin, Sanjō Sanetomi. Sanjō petitioned the emperor to be relieved of his ancient ritsuryō office; and he was then immediately appointed Naidaijin, or Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal.[10] The office of the Privy Seal was identical with the old Naidaijin only in its Japanese title—not in terms of function or powers.[12]

Council of State[edit]

This dry catalog does provide a superficial glimpse inside the complexity of what was initially designed as a pre-feudal court structure. What this list cannot easily explain is how or why the Daijō-kan turned out to be both flexible and useful across a span of centuries:

  • Chancellor of the Realm (太政大臣, Daijō-daijin)[13] See also, Acting Chancellor (知太政官事, Chi-daijōkanji).[14]
  • Minister of the Left (左大臣, Sadaijin).[13]
  • Minister of the Right (右大臣, Udaijin).[13]
  • Minister of the Center (内大臣, Naidaijin).[13]
  • Major Counselor (大納言, Dainagon), three positions. There are commonly three Dainagon,[13] sometimes more.[12]
  • Middle Counselor (中納言, Chūnagon), three positions. There are commonly three Chunagon,[13] sometimes more.[12]
  • Minor Counselor (少納言, Shōnagon), three positions. There are commonly three Shōnagon.[13]
  • Associate Counselor (参議, Sangi).[15] This office functions as a manager of daijō-kan activities within the palace.[16]
  • External secretariat (外記, Geki). These are specifically named men who act at the sole discretion of the emperor.[16]
  • Major controller of the left (左大弁, Sadaiben).[14] This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Center, Civil Services, Ceremonies, and Popular Affairs.[16]
  • Major controller of the right (右大弁, Udaiben)[14] This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Military, Justice, Treasury and Imperial Household.[16]
  • First assistant controller of the left (左中弁, Sachūben).[16]
  • First assistant controller of the right (右中弁, Uchūben).[16]
  • Second assistant controller of the left (左少弁, Sashōben).[16]
  • Second assistant controller of the right (右少弁, Ushōben).[16]
  • First secretary of the left (左大史, Sadaishi).[16]
  • First secretary of the right (右大史, Udaishi).[16]
  • Assistant secretaries of the left or right (史生, Shishō), 20 positions. There are twenty officials with this title.[16]

Ritsuryō Eight Ministries[edit]

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a multi-faceted bureaucracy focused on serving the needs of the Emperor, the Imperial family, the Imperial household and the Imperial state.[17]

Imperial power and prestige would wax and wane during the subsequent Kamakura-, Kenmu-, Muromachi-, Nanboku-chō-, Sengoku-, Azuchi–Momoyama-, and Edo-periods; nevertheless, the basic structure of the Imperial household remained largely unchanged. A mere list of the court titles cannot reveal nearly enough about the actual functioning of the Daijō-kan; but the hierarchical relationships sketch a general context.

Ministry of the Center[edit]

Main article: Ministry of the Center

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of the Center (中務省, Nakatsukasa-shō), sometimes identified as the "Ministry of Central Affairs."[18] This ministry became the governmental agency for matters most closely pertaining to the emperor.

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō official within this subdivision of the daijō-kan was the chief administrator of the Ministry of the Center (中務卿, Nakatsukasa-kyō).[14] This official had the responsibility to oversee the inspection of the interior apartments of the palace; and he was granted the privilege of retaining his swords in the presence of the emperor.[19]

Considered central were the Emperor's equerries (侍従,, Jijū), 8 positions. There are 8 officials with this title, all equal in rank and in the confidence of the Emperor.[19] In the Meiji period, a variant equerry was introduced as part of the Imperial retinue. As explained in an excerpt from the 113th Imperial decree of 1896 (Meiji 29) (明治29年勅令第113号): "Aides-de-camp to the Emperor of Japan (侍従武官, jijū bukan) will perform attendant duties and will relay to him military matters and orders, be present at military reviews [in his name] and accompanying him to formal ceremonies and interviews."[20]

Ministry of Civil Services[edit]

Main article: Shikibu-sho

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of the Civil Services (式部省, Shikibu-shō); also known as the "Ministry of Legislative Direction and Public Instruction".[21] This ministry collected and maintained biographical archives of meritorious subjects.[22]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō official within this subdivision of the daijō-kan was the chief administrator of the Ministry of Civil Services (式部卿, Shikibu-kyō);[23] also known as "Chief minister of public instruction." This office is ordinarily filled by a son or close relative of the emperor. Two of the offices which were deemed to fit in this "civil services" context were the Imperial court's Chief judge (式部大輔, Shikibu-taifu).[23] and the Emperor's chief education expert (大学頭, Daigaku no kami).[23]

Ministry of Ceremonies[edit]

Main article: Ministry of Ceremonies (Japan)

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of Ceremonies (治部省, Jibu-shō); also known as the "Ministry of the Interior".[24]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō official within this subdivision of the daijō-kan was the chief administrator of the Ministry of Ceremonies (治部卿,, Jibu-kyō).[14]

Ministry of Popular Affairs[edit]

Main article: Ministry of Popular Affairs

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of Popular Affairs (民部省, Minbu-shō).[25] This ministry is concerned with the general populace, with police activities, and with land survey records. Registries for all towns and villages are maintained, including census records as well as birth and death records.[26]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō official within this subdivision of the daijō-kan was the chief administrator of the Ministry of Popular Affairs (民部卿, Minbu-kyō).[26]

Ministry of War[edit]

Main article: Ministry of War (pre-modern Japan)

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of War (兵部省, Hyōbu-shō).[27]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō official within this subdivision of the daijō-kan was the chief administrator of the Ministry of War (兵部卿, Hyōbu-kyō).[27]

Ministry of Justice[edit]

Main article: Ministry of Justice (pre-modern Japan)

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of Justice (刑部省, Gyōbu-shō).[28]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō official within this subdivision of the daijō-kan was the chief administrator of the ministry of justice (刑部卿, Gyōbu-kyō).[27]

Ministry of the Treasury[edit]

Main article: Ministry of the Treasury

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of the Treasury (大蔵省, Ōkura-shō).[29]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō official within this subdivision of the daijō-kan was the chief administrator of the ministry of the treasury (大蔵卿, Ōkura-kyō). This official supervises the receipt of tributes from the provinces and imposes tribute on others.[30]

Ministry of the Imperial Household[edit]

Main article: Ministry of the Imperial Household

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of the Imperial Household (宮内省, Kunai-shō). The origins of the current Imperial Household Agency (宮内庁, Kunai-chō) can be traced back to structures which were put into effect during the reign of Emperor Monmu,[31] with some subsequent modifications.

In 1702, the Taika era name for the palace organization, kunai-kan or "government" of the palace, was changed to the kunai-shō or "ministry" of the palace. Accompanying this modification, the chief administrative official was afterwards called kunai-kyō. After the Meiji Restoration, the kunai-shō name remained unchanged. There were two other periods of modification and in 1889.[32]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō officials within this hierarchic structure were:

  • Chief administrator of the Imperial household (宮内卿, Kunai-kyō), the surveyor of all works which are executed within the interior of the palace.[14]
  • First assistant to the chief of the imperial Household (宮内大輔, Kunai-taifu).[33]
  • Second assistant to the chief of the imperial household (宮内少輔, Kunai-shō), two persons.[33]
  • Third assistant to the chief of the imperial household (宮内丞, Kunai-no-jō), two persons.[33]
  • Alternate assistants to the chief of the imperial household (宮内録, Kunai-no-sakan), two persons.[33]

The deliberate redundancies at the top were common features of each position in this stable hierarchic schema. Many positions typically mirrored the -kyō, -taifu, -shō, -jō, and -sakan pattern.[34]

Tokugawa courtiers[edit]

Even nominal administrative powers of court officials reached a nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate. In this impoverished period, titles and court rank were still prized by those outside the traditional kuge. The Tokugawa shōguns did not demur when the Emperor offered rank and an office in the court:

Geo-political sub-divisions[edit]

The country was divided into provinces called kuni (国), which were administered by governors kokushi (国司) appointed by the Daijō-kan. The provinces were then further divided into districts called gun (郡, /kōri), under district governors gunji (郡司) who were appointed by the local nobility. At the beginning of the eighth century, there were 592 districts making up 66 provinces.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary, Kenkyusha Limited, ISBN 4-7674-2015-6
  2. ^ Hall, John Whitney et al.. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan, p. 232.
  3. ^ Mesheryakov, Alexander (2003). "On the Quantity of Written Data Produced by the Ritsuryō State" Archived 2011-05-29 at the Wayback Machine, Japan Review, 15:187–199.
  4. ^ Ritsuryō -- court structure and offices, Sheffield.
  5. ^ Ozaki, Yukio. (2001). The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan pp. 10-11.
  6. ^ Dickson, Walter G. et al. (1898). "The Eight Boards of Government" in Japan, pp. 55-78., p. 56, at Google Books; excerpt at p. 56, "Klaproth has given in his "Annals of the Emperors" a sketch of these eight boards, with the offices under each. It is ... a concise account of the government of Japan. The study of such a subject is rather dry and uninteresting, but it is necessary for any one who wishes to make himself acquainted with Japanese history, either of the past or of the present day...."
  7. ^ Ozaki, pp. 1-6.
  8. ^ Ozaki, p. 10.
  9. ^ a b Ozaki, p. 11.
  10. ^ a b Ozaki, p. 86.
  11. ^ Dus, Peter. (1988). The Cambridge History of Japan: The Twentieth Century, pp. 59, 81.
  12. ^ a b c Unterstein (in German): Ranks in Ancient and Meiji Japan (in English and French), pp. 6, 27.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 425., p. 425, at Google Books
  14. ^ a b c d e f Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p.272.
  15. ^ Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Sangi" in Japan Encyclopedia, p. 817, p. 817, at Google Books.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Titsingh, p. 426., p. 426, at Google Books
  17. ^ Ministry of Emperor's Household, Sheffield.
  18. ^ Ministry of Central Affairs Archived 2011-05-24 at the Wayback Machine, Sheffield.
  19. ^ a b Titsingh, p. 427.
  20. ^ 侍従武官ハ天皇ニ常侍奉仕シ軍事ニ関スル奏上奉答及命令ノ伝達ニ任シ観兵演習行幸其他祭儀礼典宴会謁見等ニ陪侍扈従ス
  21. ^ Ministry of Civil Administration Archived 2012-02-07 at the Wayback Machine, Sheffield.
  22. ^ Ury, Marian. (1999). "Chinese Learning and Intellectual Life," The Cambridge history of Japan: Heian Japan, p. 361.
  23. ^ a b c Titsingh, p. 428.
  24. ^ Ministry of Ceremonies Archived 2011-05-24 at the Wayback Machine, Sheffield.
  25. ^ Ministry of Popular Affairs Archived 2011-07-27 at the Wayback Machine, Sheffield.
  26. ^ a b Titsingh, p. 430.
  27. ^ a b c Titsingh, p. 431.
  28. ^ Ministry of JusticeArchived 2011-07-27 at the Wayback Machine, Sheffield.
  29. ^ Ministry of the Treasury, Sheffield.
  30. ^ Titsingh, p. 432.
  31. ^ History of Imperial Household Agency Archived 2007-12-15 at the Wayback Machine
  32. ^ "Ministry of the Imperial Household", Catholic Encyclopedia.
  33. ^ a b c d Titsingh, p. 433
  34. ^ Titsingh, pp. 425-435.
  35. ^ Screech, T. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779–1822, pp. 157. [Error in published text was corrected: Udaijin is Minister of the Right -- not Left.]
  36. ^ a b c d e f g h Screech, pp. 157.
  37. ^ Screech, pp. 157. [Error in published text was corrected: Sadaijin is Minister of the Left - not Right.]
  38. ^ Screech, pp. 157. [Error in published text was corrected: Nadaijin is Minister of the Left - not Right.].

References[edit]

External links[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daijō-kan&oldid=1222055979"