Daijō-kan

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Premodern Japan
Imperial seal of Japan
Part of a series on the politics and
government of Japan during the
Nara and Heian periods
Daijō-daijin
Minister of the LeftSadaijin
Minister of the RightUdaijin
Minister of the CenterNaidaijin
Major CounselorDainagon
Middle CounselorChūnagon
Minor CounselorShōnagon
Eight Ministries
CenterNakatsukasa-shō  
CeremonialShikibu-shō
Civil AdministrationJibu-shō
Popular AffairsMinbu-shō
WarHyōbu-shō
JusticeGyōbu-shō
TreasuryŌkura-shō
Imperial HouseholdKunai-shō

The Daijō-kan (太政官) was the Department of State in Nara and Heian period Japan and briefly under the Meiji Constitution. It was consolidated in the Taihō Code of 702. The Asuka Kiyomihara Code of 689 marks the initial appearance of this central administrative body composed of the three ministers -- the Daijō-daijin (Chancellor), the Sadaijin (Minister of the Left) and the Udaijin (Minister of the Right).[1]

The Imperial governing structure was headed by the Daijō-kan. This council and its subsidiary ministries handled all secular administrative affairs of the country, while the Jingi-kan (神祇官) or Department of Worship, oversaw all matters regarding Shintō (神道) ritual, clergy, and shrines.

This structured organization gradually lost power over the course of the 10th and 11th centuries, as the Fujiwara clan, dominating the post of Imperial regent, began to dominate the Daijō-kan as well. It became increasingly common for the regent to hold the post of chancellor or other office simultaneously. By the 12th century, the council was essentially powerless as a separate entity, though it seems clear that the system was never formally dismantled. Over the course of centuries, the ritsuryō state produced more and more information which was carefully archived; however, with the passage of time in the Heian period, ritsuryō institutions evolved into a political and cultural system without feedback.[2]

By the time of Emperor Komei, the kuge aristocracy were joined in common goals by a number of newly powerful provincial figures from outside Kyoto. Together, this tenuous, undefined coalition of men worked together to restore the long latent prestige, persuasive power, and active strengths of a re-invigorated Imperial center. This combination of factors thrust an archaic hierarchy into the center of national attention, but with so many other high-priority matters demanding immediate attention, there was little time or energy to invest in reforming or re-organizing the Daijō-kan.

Ritsuryō organization and hierarchy

The eighth century ritsuryō innovations would proved to be remarkably durable and resilient across the span of centuries.[3]

Any exercise of meaningful powers of court officials reached its nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate, and yet the Daijō-kan did manage to persist intact through the initial years of the Meiji Restoration. It is not possible to evaluate any individual office without assessing its role in the context of a durable yet flexible network and hierarchy of functionaries.[4]

In the early Meiji period, the appointed Imperial Daijo-kan was filled with princes, aristocrats, loyalists domain lords (daimyo), and samurai.[5]

Within months after Emperor Meiji's Charter Oath, the ancient ritsuryō structure was slightly modified with an express focus on the separation of legislative, administrative, and judicial functions within the Daijō-kan system.[6] The evolution of a deliberative body within a modern constitutional system was gradual, and it's constituent differences from the old Daijō-kan were not entirely self-evident at first, as revealed in an Imperial message in 1869:

"The Assembly shall be for the wide ranging consultation of public opinion and, respecting the Imperial will which laid the foundations of national government, it will be a place where the energies of the multitude are harnessed. Thus, it is necessary that proceedings will show respect for the Imperial rescript, be united in purpose with the Daijō-kan, take the fundamentals of government to heart, judiciously address matters which arise, and act to ensure that unity within the country is not compromised."[7]

Some months later, another major reform of the Daijō-kan re-united the legislative and executive functions which had been clearly separated earlier.[7]

In 1871, The office of Daijō-daijin in the Great Council of State was briefly resurrected under the Meiji Constitution with the appointment of Sanjō Sanetomi. Despite the similarity of names for its constituent offices, this Daijō-kan would have been unrecognizable to Fujiwara courtiers of the Heian period. Nor would it have seemed at all familiar to those men who surrounded the emperor in the days of the Kemmu Restoration. In due course, it was decided that a modern integrated cabinet system would better serve a modern Japan. The Daijō-kan system, which had been divided into ministerial committees, would be replaced by a more modern model.

In December 1885, the old system was abolished completely;[8] and yet, even afterwards, some elements of old system were adapted to new uses. For example, in that year, the title of Naidaijin was reconfigured to mean the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan in the Imperial Court (宮中,, kyūchū).[9] The man who had previously held the office of prime minister or chief minister of the initial restoration government was the Daijō-daijin, Sanjō Sanetomi. Sanjō petitioned the emperor to be relieved of his ancient ritsuryō office; and he was then immediately appointed Naidaijin, or Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal.[8] The office of the Privy Seal was identical with the old Naidaijin only in the sense of the\is Japanese title -- not in terms of function or powers.[10]

Council of State

This dry catalog does provide a superficial glimpse inside the complexity of what was initially designed as a pre-feudal court structure. What this list cannot easily explain is how or why the Daijō-kan turned out to be both flexible and useful across a span of centuries:

  • 1. Chancellor of the realm or chief minister (太政大臣, Daijō daijin)[11]
    • See also, Acting great minister of the council of state (知太政官事, Chi-daijōkanji).[12]
  • 2. Minister of the left (左大臣, Sadaijin).[11]
  • 3. Minister of the right (右大臣, Udaijin).[11]
  • 4. Minister of the center (内大臣, Naidaijin).[11]
  • 5. Major counselor (大納言, Dainagon) -- three positions. There are commonly three Dainagon,[11] sometimes more.[13]
  • 6. Middle counselor (中納言, Chūnagon).[11]
  • 7. Minor counselor (少納言, Shōnagon) -- three positions. There are commonly three Shōnagon.[11]
  • 8. Director of palace affairs (参議,, Sangi). This office functions as a manager of activities within the palace.[14]
  • 9. External secretariat (外記, Geki). These are specifically named men who act at the sole discretion of the emperor.[14]
  • 10. Major controller of the left (左大弁, Sadaiben,)[12] This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Center, Civil Services, Ceremonies, and Taxation.[14]
  • 11. Major controller of the right (右大弁, Udaiben)[12] This administrator was charged or tasked with supervising four ministries: Military, Justice, Treasury and Imperial Household.[14]
  • 12. First assistant controller of the left (左中弁,, Sachūben).[14]
  • 13. First assistant controller of the right (右中弁,, Uchūben).[14]
  • 14. Second assistant controller of the left (左少弁,, Sashōben).[14]
  • 15. Second assistant controller of the right (右少弁,, Ushōben).[14]
  • 16. First secretary of the left (左大史,, Sadaishi).[14]
  • 17. First secretary of the right (右大史,, Udaishi).[14]
  • 18. Assistant secretaries of the left or right (史生,, Shishō) -- 20 positions. There are twenty officials with this title.[14]

Ritsuryō Eight Ministries

A mere list of the court titles cannot reveal nearly enough about the actual functioning of the Daijō-kan; but at least the broad hierarchical relationships which are drawn here amongst these court offices become more readily identified in a changing historical context.

Ritsuryō Ministry of the Center

Main article: Ministry of the Center (Ritsuryō)

I. Ministry of the Center
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a Ministry of the Center (中務省,, Nakatsukasa-shō).[15] This ministry became the governmental agency for matters pertaining to the emperor. Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:[16]

  • 19. Minister or chief administrator (中務卿,, Nakatsukasa-kyō).[12] This official oversees the inspection of the interior apartments of the palace; and he is granted the privilege of retaining his swords in the presence of the emperor.[16]
  • 20. First assistant to the Minister (中務大輔,, Nakatsukasa-taifu).[16]
  • 21. Second assistant to the Minister (中務少輔,, Nakatsukasa-shō).[16]
  • 22. Third assistant to the Minister (中務大丞,, Nakatsukasa dai-shō).[16]
  • 23. Fourth assistant to the Minister (中務少丞,, Nakatsukasa shō-shō).[16]
  • 24. Emperor's equerries (侍従,, Jijū) -- 8 positions. There are 8 officials with this title, all equal in rank and in the confidence of the Emperor.[16]
  • 25. Ministerial equerries (内舎人, Udoneri) -- 90 positions. There are 90 officials with this title; and when a sesshō becomes a kampaku, these men function under his orders. If the emperor is still a child, or if a woman occupies the throne, a kampaku is chosen to represent the emperor; and the kampaku is considered first amongst all others in Japan. Then the Shogun cannot undertake anything of importance without his approval. When the emperor governs directly on his own, the Udoneri may be by-passed.[16]
  • 26. Chief draftsman/editor (大内記,, Dai-naiki).[16]
  • 27. Assistant draftsmen/editors (少内記,, Shō-naiki). These officials must be very well versed in the affairs of China and Japan: and they edit or re-draft all of the emperor's edicts, rescripts, memorials and letters. For this kind of work, only men of the highest merit and distinction are chosen.[16]
  • 28. Drafting clerks (監物,, Kenmotsu).[16]
  • 29. Chief surveyor of palace apartments (中宮大夫,, Chūgū daibu).[16]
  • 30. Assistant surveyor of palace apartments (中宮権大夫,, Chūgū gon no daibu).[16]
  • 31. Majordomo of the palace (内舎人頭,, Udoneri no kami).[16]
  • 32. Chief curator of the palace (内蔵頭,, Kura no kami).[16]
  • 33. Assistant curator of the palace (内蔵権頭,, Kura no gon no kami).[16]
  • 34. Chief court tailor (縫殿頭,, Nui no kami).[16]
  • 35. Chief court astrologer (陰陽頭,, On'yō no kami)[16] -- see Onmyōdō.
  • 36. Chief court calendar-maker (暦博士,, Reki hakase).[16]
  • 37. Chief court astronomer (天文博士,, Tenmon hakase).[16]
  • 38. Chief court time-keeper (漏刻博士,, Rōkoku hakase).[16]
  • 39. Chief court architect (内匠頭,, Takumi no kami).[16]

Ritsuryō Ministry of Civil Services

Main article: Ministry of the Civil Services (Ritsuryō)

II. Ministry of Civil Services
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a Ministry of the Civil Services (式部省,, Shikibu-shō); also known as the "Ministry of Legislative Direction and Public Instruction".[17] This ministry collected and maintained biographical archives of meritorious subjects.[18] Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:[16]

  • 40. Chief administrator of the ministry of civil services (式部卿,, Shikibu-kyō);[12] also known as Chief minister of public instruction. This office is ordinarily filled by a son or close relative of the emperor. There are seven judges who directly assist this court official:[19]
    • 1. Chief judge (式部大輔,, Shikibu-taifu).[19]
    • 2. First associate judge (式部少輔,, Shikibu no shō).[19]
    • 3-4. Second associate judges (式部大丞,, Shikibu no dai-shō) -- two positions.[19]
    • 5-6. Third associate judges (式部少丞,, Shikibu no shō-shō) -- two positions.[19]
    • 7. Alternate adjudicators (式部録,, Shikibu no sakan) -- two positions, one superior to the other.[19]
      • Senior alternate adjudicator (式部大録,, Shikibu no dai-sakan).[19]
      • Junior alternate adjudicator (式部少録,, Shikibu no shō-sakan).[19]
  • 41. Chief Education expert (大学頭,, Daigaku no kami).[19]
    • 1. Chief experts on the history of Japan and China (紀伝博士,, Kiden hakase).[19]
    • 2. Chief experts on classical Chinese works (明経博士,, Myōgyō hakase).[19]
    • 3. Chief experts on jurisprudence of Japan and China (明法博士,, Myōbō hakase).[19]
    • 4. Chief experts on mathematics (算博士,, San hakase).[19]
  • 42. Chief calligrapher of the court (文章博士,, Monjō hakase). There would have been many copyist calligraphers working under the direction of the chief calligrapher.[19]
  • 43. First Assistant to the chief calligrapher of the court (助教,, Jokyō).[19]
  • 44. Instructors of Japanese and Chinese literature (直講,, Chok'kō) -- two positions.[19]
  • 45. Instructors in pronunciation of words (音博士,, On hakase) -- two positions.[19]
  • 46. Instructors in calligraphy (書博士,, Sho hakase) -- two positions.[19]
  • 47.
  • 48.

Ritsuryō Ministry of Ceremonies

Main article: Ministry of Ceremonies (Ritsuryō)

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of Ceremonies (治部省, Jibu-shō); also known as the "Ministry of the Interior".[20]

The top ritsuryō official within the hierarchic daijō-kan structure was the Chief administrator of the ministry of ceremonies (治部卿,, Jibu-kyō).[12]

Ritsuryō Ministry of Taxation

Main article: Ministry of the Taxation (Ritsuryō)

IV. Ministry of Taxation
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a Ministry of Taxation (民部省,, Minbu-shō).[21] Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:[22]

  • 68. Minister or chief administrator (民部卿,, Minbu-kyō).[12] The Chief Minister who concerns himself with the people's affairs, with the general police, and with land survey records. In this ministry, registries for all towns and villages are maintained, which include census records of general population, records of births and records of deaths.[22]
  • 69. First assistant to the Minister (民部大輔,, Minbu-taifu).[22]
  • 70. Second assistant to the Minister (民部少輔,, Minbu-shō).[22]
  • 71. Senior undersecretaries (民部丞,, "Minbu no jō) -- four positions. There would have been four undersecretaries, two of whom would have been considered superior to the other two:
    • Junior taxation undersecretary (民部少,, Minbu-shō).[22]
    • Alternate undersecretary (民部録,, Minbu no sakan).[22]
  • 72. Chief tax steward (主計頭,, Kazue no kami). In former times, when the Emperor enjoyed the full exercise of all his powers, this court official would have supervised gathering of all tax revenues and imperial expenditures throughout the country; but from the 12th century, the activities of this steward were more narrowly focused on the revenue and expenditures of the court itself.[22]
  • 73. Assistant tax steward (主計助,, Kazue no suke).[22]
  • 74. Chief comptroller (主計允,, Kazue no jō) -- two positions. These officials were charged with overseeing financial accounts.[22]
  • 75. Assistant comptroller (主計属,, Kazue no sakan) -- two positions. These officials were aides to the chief comptrollers.[23]
  • 76. Chief food inspector (主税頭,, Chikara no kami).[23]
  • 77. Assistant food inspector (主税介,, Chikara no suke). All food which might be served to the emperor was scrupulously examined by the food inspectors; and the rice is counted grain-by-grain so that the emperor is given exactly the same amount each day.[23]

Ritsuryō Ministry of the Military

Main article: Ministry of the Military (Ritsuryō)

The Taihō Code established a Ministry of the Military (兵部省, Hyōbu-shō).[23]

The top ritsuryō official within the hierarchic daijō-kan structure was the Chief administrator of the Ministry of the Military (兵部卿, Hyōbu-kyō).[23]

Ritsuryō Ministry of Justice

Main article: Ministry of the Justice (Ritsuryō)

VI. Ministry of Justice
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a Ministry of Justice (刑部省,, Gyōbu-shō).[24] Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:[23]

  • 86. Chief administrator of the ministry of justice (刑部卿,, Gyōbu-kyō).[23]
  • 87. First assistant to the chief of the ministry of justice (刑部大輔, Gyōbu-taifu).[23]
  • 88. Second assistant to the chief of the ministry of justice (刑部少輔,, Gyōbu-shō).[25]
  • 89. Senior ministry of justice undersecretary (刑部丞,, Gyōbu no jō).[25]
  • 90. Alternate of justice undersecretary (刑部録,, Gyōbu no sakan) -- two positions.[25]
  • 91. Chief judge (大判事,, Dai-hanji). There are three classes of officials under the control of the chief judge.[25]
  • 92. First assistants to the chief judge (中判事,, Chū-hanji).[25]
  • 93. Second assistants to the chief judge (少判事,, Shō-hanji).[25]
  • 94. Alternate assistants to the chief judge (判事属,, Hanji no sakan).[25]
  • 95. Chief prison warden (囚獄正,, Shūgoku no kami).[25]
  • 96. First assistant prison warden (囚獄佑,, Shūgoku no jō).[25]
  • 97. Alternate assistant prison warden (囚獄令史,, Shūgoku no sakan).[25]

VII. Ministry of the Treasury

Main article: Ministry of the Treasury (Ritsuryō)

VII. Ministry of the Treasury
The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a Ministry of the Treasury (大蔵省,, Ōkura-shō).[26] Amongst the significant Daijō-kan officials within this ministry structure were:[25]

  • 98. Chief administrator of the ministry of the treasury (大蔵卿,, Ōkura-kyō).[12] This official supervises the receipt of tributes from the provinces and imposes tribute on others.[25]
  • 99. Chief administrator of the ministry of the treasury (大蔵大輔,, Ōkura-taifu).[12]
  • 100. First assistant to the chief of the ministry of the treasury (大蔵少輔,, Ōkura-shō).[12]
  • 101. Second assistant to the chief of the ministry of the treasury (大蔵丞,, Ōkura no jō) -- two positions.[12]
  • 102. Alternate assistant to the chief of the ministry of the treasury (大蔵録,, Ōkura no sakan) -- two positions.[12]
  • 103. Collector of taxation from manufactureres and dyers (織部正,, Oribe no kami).[25]
  • 104. Assistant collector of taxation from manufactureres and dyers (織部佑,, Oribe no jō).[25]
  • 105. Alternate assistant collector of taxation from manufactureres and dyers (織部令史,, Oribe no sakan).[25]

VIII. Ministry of the Imperial Household

Main article: Ministry of the Imperial Household (Ritsuryō)

The Asuka-, Nara- and Heian-period Imperial court hierarchy encompassed a bureaucracy focused on serving the needs of the Imperial Household .[27]

The origins of the current Imperial Household Agency can be traced back to structures which were put into effect during the reign of Emperor Monmu,[28] with some subsequent modifications.

In 1702, the Taika era name for the palace organization, kunai-kan or "government" of the palace, was changed to the kunai-shō or "ministry" of the palace. Accompanying this modification, the chief administrative official was afterwards called kunai-kyō After the restoration, the kunai-shō name remained unchanged. There were two other periods of modification and in 1889.[29]

In the 18th century, the top ritsuryō officials within this ministry structure were:

  • Chief administrator of the imperial household (宮内卿, Kunai-kyō), the surveyor of all works which are executed within the interior of the palace.[12]
  • First assistant to the chief of the imperial Household (宮内大輔, Kunai-taifu).[30]
  • Second assistant to the chief of the imperial household (宮内少輔, Kunai-shō), two persons.[30]
  • Third assistant to the chief of the imperial household (宮内丞, Kunai-no-jō), two persons.[30]
  • Alternate assistants to the chief of the imperial household (宮内録, Kunai-no-sakan), two persons.[30]

The deliberate redundancies at the top are features of each position in this remarkably stable hierarchic schema. Many positions would mirror the -kyō, -taifu, -shō, -jō, and -sakan pattern.[31]

Imperial power and prestige would wax and wane during the subsequent Kamakura-, Kemmu-, Muromachi-, Nanboku-chō-, Sengoku-, Azuchi-Momoyama-, and Edo-periods; nevertheless, the basic structure of the Imperial household remained largely unchanged.

Tokugawa Courtiers

Even nominal administrative powers of court officials reached a nadir during the years of the Tokugawa shogunate. In this impoverished period, titles and court rank were still prized by those outside the traditional kuge. The Tokugawa shoguns did not demur when the emperor offered rank and an office in the court:

Geo-political sub-divisions

The country was divided into provinces called kuni (国), which were administered by governors (kokushi, 国司) appointed by the Daijō-kan. The provinces were then further divided into districts called gun (郡) or kōri, under district governors (gunji, 郡司) who were appointed by the local nobility. At the beginning of the eighth century there were 592 districts making up 66 provinces.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Hall, John Whitney et al. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan, p. 232.
  2. ^ Mesheryakov, Alexander. (2003). "On the Quantity of Written Data Produced by the Ritsuryō State", Japan Review, 15:187-199.
  3. ^ Ritsuryō -- court structure and offices, Sheffield.
  4. ^ Ozaki, Yukio. (2001). The Autobiography of Ozaki Yukio: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in Japan pp. 10-11.
  5. ^ Ozaki, pp. 1-6.
  6. ^ Ozaki, p. 10.
  7. ^ a b Ozaki, p. 11. Cite error: The named reference "Oz11" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ a b Ozaki, p. 86. Cite error: The named reference "Oz86" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ Dus, Peter. (1988). The Cambridge History of Japan: The Twentieth Century, pp. 59, 81.
  10. ^ Unterstein (in German): Ranks in Ancient and Meiji Japan (in English and French), pp. 6, 27.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g Titsingh, p. 425. Cite error: The named reference "t425" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p.272.
  13. ^ Unterstein (in German), Ranks in Ancient and Meiji Japan (in English and French), pp. 6, 27.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Titsingh, p. 426. Cite error: The named reference "t426" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  15. ^ Ministry of Central Affairs, Sheffield.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Titsingh, p. 427. Cite error: The named reference "t427" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  17. ^ Ministry of Civil Administration, Sheffield.
  18. ^ Ury, Marian. (1999). "Chinese Learning and Intellectual Life," The Cambridge history of Japan: Heian Japan, p. 361.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Titsingh, p. 428. Cite error: The named reference "t428" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  20. ^ Ministry of Ceremonial, Sheffield.
  21. ^ Ministry of Popular Affairs, Sheffield.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i [see above]. Cite error: The named reference "t430" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h Titsingh, p. 431. Cite error: The named reference "t431" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  24. ^ Ministry of Justice, Sheffield.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Titsingh, p. 432. Cite error: The named reference "t432" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  26. ^ Ministry of the Treasury, Sheffield.
  27. ^ Ministry of Emperor's Household, Sheffield.
  28. ^ History of Imperial Household Agency
  29. ^ "Ministry of the Imperial Household", Catholic Encyclopedia.
  30. ^ a b c d Titsingh, p. 433
  31. ^ Titsingh, pp. 425-435.
  32. ^ Screech, T. (2006). Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isaac Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822, pp. 157. [Error in published text was corrected: Udaijin is Minister of the Right -- not Left.]
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h Screech, pp. 157. Cite error: The named reference "s157" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  34. ^ Screech, pp. 157. [Error in published text was corrected: Sadaijin is Minister of the Left - not Right.]
  35. ^ Screech, pp. 157. [Error in published text was corrected: Nadaijin is Minister of the Left - not Right.].

References

External links

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