Medieval philosophy and Inflatable boat: Difference between pages
(Difference between pages)
Content deleted Content added
m →Images: misc |
|||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Unreferenced|date=October 2007}} |
|||
{{histphil}} |
|||
[[Image:inflatable boats.JPG|thumb|right|Inflatable boats at Horsea Island, England.]] |
|||
'''Medieval philosophy''' is the [[philosophy]] of Europe and the Middle East in the era now known as [[medieval]] or the [[Middle Ages]], the period roughly extending from the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] to the [[Renaissance]]. It is defined partly by the process of rediscovering the ancient culture developed in [[Ancient Greece | Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome | Rome]] in the classical period, and partly by the need to address [[Theology | theological problems]] and to integrate sacred doctrine with secular learning. |
|||
An '''inflatable boat''' is a lightweight boat constructed with its sides and bow made of flexible tubes containing pressurised gas. For smaller boats, the floor and hull beneath it is often flexible. On boats longer than 3 metres/10 feet, the floor often consists of three to five rigid [[plywood]] or [[aluminium]] sheets fixed between the tubes but not joined rigidly together. Often the [[transom]] is rigid, providing a location and structure for mounting an [[outboard motor]]. |
|||
Some inflatable boats have been designed to be disassembled and packed into in a small volume, so they can easily stored and transported to water when needed. This feature allows such boats to be used as [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|liferaft]]s for larger [[boat]]s or [[aircraft]], and for travel or recreational purposes. |
|||
The problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the [[Existence of God | existence]] and [[Divine simplicity|simplicity]] of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, and the [[epistemology | problems of knowledge]], of [[Problem of universals | universals]], and of [[Principle of individuation|individuation]].<ref>Gracia & Noone p1</ref> |
|||
Other terms for inflatable boats are "dinghy", "inflatable dinghy", "rubber dinghy" or "inflatable." |
|||
== Character of medieval philosophy == |
|||
[[Image:Septem-artes-liberales Herrad-von-Landsberg Hortus-deliciarum 1180.jpg|thumb|200px|Philosophy seated between the seven [[liberal arts]] – Picture from the [[Hortus deliciarum]] of [[Herrad von Landsberg]] (12th century)]] |
|||
The medieval era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance humanists, who saw it as a barbaric 'middle' period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the 'rebirth' or ''renaissance'' of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of philosophical development in Europe and the Middle East, and possibly the richest. [[Jorge Gracia]] has argued that 'in intensity, sophistication, and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B.C.' <ref>Gracia, p. 1)</ref> |
|||
==Types== |
|||
Medieval philosophy is characteristically ''theological'': with the possible exceptions of [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]], medieval thinkers did not consider themselves philosophers at all. Their concerns are theological: for them, the philosophers were the ancient pagan writers such as [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]<ref>Gracia & Noone p 1)</ref>. However, the theological works of medieval writers use the ideas and logical techniques of the ancient philosophers to address difficult theological questions, and points of doctrine. [[Thomas Aquinas]], following [[Peter Damian]], argued that philosophy is the handmaiden of theology (''ancilla theologiae''). |
|||
Inflatable boats may have rubber floors, either plain or inflatable, or they may include [[steel]], [[wood]] or [[aluminium]] sheets for rigidity. The tubes are made of rubberised, synthetic sheets of Hypalon or PVC to provide light-weight and secure [[buoyancy]]. The tubes are often constructed in separate sections, each with a valve to add or remove air, to reduce the effect of a puncture. |
|||
Some inflatable boats have an inflated [[keel]] to create a "groove" along the line of the hull improving the hull's wave cutting and turning performance. Due to the lightness, it is easy to cause an inflatable boat to start [[planing (sailing)|hydroplaning]], thus making it faster than the engine would allow when the hull is operating in displacement mode. |
|||
The three principles that underlie all their work are the use of logic, dialectic and analysis to discover the truth, known as ''ratio'', respect for the insights of ancient philosophers, particularly Aristotle, and deference to their authority; ''auctoritas'', and the obligation to co-ordinate the insights of philosophy with theological teaching and revelation; ''concordia''. |
|||
A growing use for inflatables is for [[white water]] [[rafting]] and [[kayaking]], as well as in river, lake and ocean touring. Professional-level rafts and kayaks have existed for many years; since the late 1990s, more affordable inflatable rafts, kayaks (including [[sea kayaks]]) and [[canoes]] have been developed by European and North American companies. Typically these inflatable boats contain no rigid frame members, so they can be deflated, folded and stored in compact bags. |
|||
One of the most heavily debated topics of the period was that of faith versus reason. In the Mediaeval era, intellectual assessment of faith was more pronounced among some philosophers. [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] both leaned more on the side of reason. [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] said that he would never allow his philosophical investigations to go beyond the authority of God.<ref>Kretzmann & Stump p 27</ref> and [[Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm]] attempted to defend against what he saw as partly an assault on faith, with an approach allowing for both faith and reason.<ref>Gallatin</ref> The Augustinian solution to the faith/reason problem is to (1) believe, and then (2) seek to understand. |
|||
==Repairing== |
|||
== Early Medieval Christian Philosophy == |
|||
Should a section puncture it can be repaired while still underway. More extensive inflatable boat repairs - due to pinholes, punctures, peeling, leaks or worn fabric - can be done in dry dock using two-stage synthetic rubber coatings (SRC). |
|||
[[Image:Abbaye Saint Benoit sur Loire intérieur.jpg|thumb|left|250px| Fleury: the [[nave]]]] |
|||
The boundaries of the early medieval period are a matter of controversy<ref>Gracia & Noone p 1</ref>. It is generally agreed that it begins with [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354 – 430) who strictly belongs to the classical period, and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late eleventh century, at the beginning of the [[High Medieval| high medieval]] period. |
|||
Subject to a great deal of wear and tear from the elements - both water and sun - inflatable boats are often replaced when they could be restored or even repaired. Products that aggressively adhere to the damaged Hypalon or PVC shell can fix virtually any surface damage through a unique chemical bonding between the undercoat and topcoat that permanently [[vulcanize]]s the two rubber coatings together to make the inflatable as good as new. However since the Hypalon material increases the cost of the inflatable up to 15% not all manufactures provide the option. Some, such as the Brig and the Zodiac brand inflatable boat offer the option between the PVC or the Hypalon which is recommended for environments of increase heat and sunlight. |
|||
After the collapse of the [[Roman empire]], Western Europe lapsed into the so-called [[Dark Ages]], and there was little intellectual activity in this period. Monasteries were the only focus of learning, possibly a result of a rule of [[St Benedict]]'s in [[525]] which required monks to read the Bible daily, and his suggestion that at the beginning of Lent, a book be given to each monk. In later periods monks were used for training administrators and churchmen. |
|||
==Uses== |
|||
Early Christian thought, particularly in the [[Church Fathers| patristic]] period, tends to be intuitional and mystical, and is less reliant on reason and logical argument. It also places more emphasis on the sometimes mystical doctrines of Plato, and less upon the systematic thinking of [[Aristotle]]<ref>Russell, Book II, Part i, c. 6</ref>. Much of the work of Aristotle was unknown in the West in this period. Scholars relied on translations by [[Boethius]] into Latin of Aristotle's Categories, the logical work [[On Interpretation]], and his Latin translation of Porphyry's [[Isagoge]], which is a commentary on Aristotle's [[Categories (Aristotle)| Categories ]]. |
|||
Inflatables are commonly between 2 and 7 metres (6 to 21 feet) long and are propelled by [[outboard motor]]s of 5 to 80 [[horsepower]] (4 to 60 kW). Due to their speed, portability and weight, inflatable boats are used as:- |
|||
*[[rescue craft]] |
|||
*[[dive boat]]s for [[scuba diving]] |
|||
*[[Ship's tender|tenders]] for larger boats and ships in port and at sea |
|||
*[[luxury yacht tender]]s |
|||
*recreational [[water skiing]] |
|||
*for racing |
|||
*commercial or recreational fishing |
|||
*for military purposes, such as transporting soldiers from a vessel to shore |
|||
Inflatables up to 6 metres in length can be towed on [[Trailer (vehicle)|trailers]] on the road. |
|||
Two Roman philosophers had a great influence on the development of medieval philosophy: [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Boethius]]. Augustine is regarded as the greatest of the [[Church Fathers]]. He is primarily a theologian and a devotional writer, but much of his writing is philosophical. His themes are [[truth]], [[God]], the human [[soul]], the meaning of [[history]], the [[state]], [[sin]] and [[salvation]]. For over a thousand years there was hardly a Latin work of theology or philosophy that did not quote his writing, or invoke his authority. Some of his writing had an influence on the development of [[early modern philosophy]], such as that of [[Descartes]].<ref>Hyman & Walsh p. 15</ref>. [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius]] (480– c.525) was a Christian philosopher born in Rome to an ancient and important family. He became consul in 510 in the kingdom of the [[Ostrogoths]]. His influence on the early medieval period was also marked (so much so that it is sometimes called the ''Boethian period'').<ref>McGavin p. 53</ref> He intended to translate all the works of Aristotle and Plato from the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] into [[Latin]], and translated many of Aristotle’s logical works, such as [[On Interpretation]], and the [[Categories (Aristotle)| Categories]]. He wrote commentaries on these works, and on the [[Isagoge]] by [[Porphyry]] (a commentary on the Categories). This introduced the [[problem of universals]] to the medieval world. |
|||
These boats are often used by [[special-operations]] units of the [[armed forces]] of several nations, for such purposes as landing on [[beaches]] or [[submarines]]. They have also be used by special operations soldiers without government sponsorship, such as [[guerrillas]], [[pirates]], and [[terrorists]]. |
|||
The first significant renewal of learning in the West came when [[Charlemagne]], advised by [[Peter of Pisa]] and [[Alcuin of York]], attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, and by imperial decree in 787 A.D. established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name [[Scholasticism]] is derived, became centres of medieval learning. |
|||
[[Image:Hildegard von Bingen Liber Divinorum Operum.jpg|thumb|right|"Universal Man" illumination from [[Hildegard of Bingen|Hildegard's]] ''[[De operatione Dei]]'', [[1165]]]] |
|||
[[Johannes Scotus Eriugena]] (c. 815 - 877), successor of Alcuin of York as head of the Palace School was an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[theologian]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] [[philosopher]]. He is notable for having translated and made commentaries upon the work of [[Pseudo-Dionysius]]. Around this period several doctrinal controversies emerged, such as the question of whether God had predestined some for salvation and some for damnation. Eriugena was called in to settle this dispute. At the same time [[Paschasius Radbertus]] raised an important question about the [[Real presence| real presence]] of [[Christ]] at the [[Eucharist]]. Is the [[Sacramental bread| host]] the same as Christ's historical body? How can it be present at many places and many times? Radbertus argued that Christ's real body is present, veiled by the appearance of bread and wine, and is present at all places and all times, by means of God's incomprehensible power. |
|||
==History== |
|||
This period also witnessed a revival of scholarship. At [[Abbey of Fleury| Fleury]], [[Theodulphus]], [[bishop of Orléans]] established a school for young noblemen recommended there by [[Charlemagne]]. By the mid-ninth century its library was one of the most comprehensive ever assembled in the West, and scholars such as [[Lupus of Ferrières]] (d. 862) traveled there to consult its texts. Later under St. [[Abbo of Fleury]] (abbot 988-1004), head of the reformed abbey school, Fleury enjoyed a second golden age. |
|||
===Early attempts=== |
|||
There are ancient carved images of animal skins filled with air being used as one-man floats to cross rivers. They were inflated by mouth. Sometimes these images have been wrongly described as ancient [[Scuba set|scuba]]. |
|||
In 1839 the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] tested the first inflatable pontoons. |
|||
[[Remigius of Auxerre]], at the beginning of the tenth century, produced glosses or commentaries on the classical texts of [[Donatus]], [[Priscian]], [[Boethius]] and [[Martianus Capella]]. The Carolingian period was followed by a small dark age that was followed by a lasting revival of learning in the eleventh century. |
|||
===Rubber arrives=== |
|||
== Islamic philosophy in the Middle Ages == |
|||
In 1900 to 1910 the development of rubber manufacturing enabled attempts at producing circular rubber inflatable boats: similar to modern [[coracle]]s. These were only usable as rafts and could be propelled only by paddling, and they tended to crack at seams and folds due to imperfect manufacture of the rubber. |
|||
{{main|Early Islamic philosophy}} |
|||
[[Image:Arabic aristotle.jpg|thumb|Arabic [[Aristotle]]]] |
|||
Whereas Judaism and Christianity began as a religion of small groups, Islam developed as the religion of an expanding empire. Within a hundred years of Mohammed's death in 632 AD, military conquest extended the Islamic world to India, North Africa and Southern Spain<ref>Hyman & Walsh p. 203</ref>. |
|||
===Titanic and WWI=== |
|||
As a result, a variety of different communities came under Muslim rule, and Islam came into contact with the theological systems of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastranism, and the philosophy of India and Greece. This led Islamic theologians to use philosophical ideas and principles to interpret Koranic doctrines. |
|||
With the loss of the [[RMS Titanic|Titanic]] in 1912, and [[World War I]] losses of ships to [[submarine]]-launched [[torpedo]]es, the need for inflatable boats was plain. |
|||
One cause of the loss of life on the Titanic was the lack of [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s. Even if every lifeboat had been completely filled with passengers and crew, there would have been no way to rescue more than half of all the people on board. The first [[SOLAS]] [[treaty]] was designed to avoid such a disaster happening again. One of its provisions was to ensure that vessels had enough lifeboats to provide every person aboard the vessel with a place. Putting this rule into effect was not difficult with cargo ships: they had small crews and plenty of deck space. Passenger ships had to stack lifeboats on top of each other to able to carry enough to accommodate the large number of passengers and crew. [[Warship]]s also had large crews and little deck space. |
|||
The first stage of this process was the translation into Arabic of Greek philosophical and scientific works that had been preserved by Eastern Christians in Mesopatamia, Syria and Egypt. The translators were mostly Nestorian and Jacobite Christians, working in the two hundred years following the early Abbasid period (c. 800). The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian [[Hunayn Ibn Ishaq]] (809-873), known to the Latins as ''Joannitius''. The texts were first translated into [[Syriac]], then into Arabic. Despite this process, the translations were generally accurate, aiming for a literal reading rather than elegance<ref>Hyman & Walsh p. 204</ref>. |
|||
Between the two World Wars, [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company|Goodyear]] found a way to join rubber to other materials. They made life rafts of square-shaped inflated rubber tubes with a rigid floor. Such rafts were to be stacked vertically aboard warships, usually standing on deck and leaning against deck-houses. But conservative thinking from navies held back this new idea. |
|||
In the tenth century another school arose among the [[Jacobite Orthodox Church| Jacobites]]. These knew little Greek, and used only Syriac translations. The works translated included nearly all the works of [[Aristotle]], the writings of commentators such as [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]], [[Themistius]] and [[Theophrastus]], most of the dialogues of [[Plato]], and some [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] works. |
|||
[[Pierre Debroutelle]]'s 1937 design was the first known to have its inflatable tube in a U-shape. It was the first boat of its kind to be certified by the [[French Navy]]. Its added wooden [[transom]] was patented on 10 August 1943. This version was the predecessor of today's inflatable sports and pleasure boats. |
|||
The next stage was the development of Islamic theology by the [[Mutakallimun]]. These were divided into the [[Mu'tazili| Mu'tazilites]] and the [[Ash'ari| Ash'arites]]. The Mu'tazilites originated in groups that met in Basrah and Baghdad to discuss how Greek philosophical ideas might help to resolve certain theological problems, such as divine unity, and how human beings can be free even though God is omnipotent. They also developed proofs of the creation of the world, using Christian Neoplatonist ideas. The Ash'arites (founded by Al-Ash'ari, 873-935) tried to clarify Koranic doctrines. They denied the existence of any causation except through God, and therefore denied the freedom of human will<ref>Hyman & Walsh p. 205</ref>. |
|||
[[Image:Avicenna Persian Physician.jpg|thumb|175px|left|[[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina), the founder of [[Avicennism]].]] |
|||
[[Al-Kindi]] (801–873) is generally regarded as the first Aristotelian philosopher. He advocated the independent study of philosophy, and also wrote on science and logic. [[Al-Razi]] (865- c. 925), by contrast, defended Plato against Aristotle, who he regarded a corrupter of philosophy. Aristotelianism continued with [[Al-Farabi]] (870-930), while Ibn Sina, known to the Latins as [[Avicenna]] (980-1037), developed his own school of thought known as [[Avicennism]], which reconciled Islamic theology with Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The Avicennian school of philosophy had a lasting impact on [[Islamic philosophy]] through to the time of [[Mulla Sadra]] in the 16th century, while it also attracted a following among Christian philosophers in medieval Europe. |
|||
===World War II=== |
|||
The Ash'arite theologian [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058-1111), by contrast, represents Islamic reaction to Aristotle. Ghazali [[doubt]]ed and bitterly denounced Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labelled those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith. |
|||
[[World War II]] changed everything. Submarine warfare in the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)|Battle of the Atlantic]] led to casualties among warships and merchant ships. US warships began using rubber life rafts. Since the rubber was much higher quality than 35 years before, the inflatable returned, but this time it was boat-shaped. |
|||
In military use inflatable boats were used to transport torpedoes and other cargo. They also allowed troops to make landings in shallow water, and their compact size and storability made overland transport possible. |
|||
Islamic Aristotelianism reached its height with Ibn Rushd, known to Europe as [[Averroes]]. Averroes in turn denounced Ghazali's criticisms of Aristotelianism, although he is best known in the West for his commentaries on Aristotle. Hebrew translations of his work also had a lasting impact on [[Jewish philosophy]]. Averroes' school of thought is known as [[Averroism]]. |
|||
One of the models, the Zodiac brand inflatable boat, grew to be popular with the military and contributed significantly to the rise of the civilian inflatable boat industry, both in Europe and in the United States. After World War II, surplus inflatable boats were sold to the public. A version of this boat has been adapted by the [[Marine Mammal Center]] for use in rescuing injured marine mammals at sea. |
|||
Works (particularly commentaries) in the Islamic philosophical tradition were introduced in the Latin West gradually from the 11th century on, by means of translations. These had a great influence on the development of Medieval [[Scholasticism]]. |
|||
===Modern inflatables=== |
|||
== High Middle Ages == |
|||
Inflatable [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|liferaft]]s were also used successfully to save crews of aircraft that ditched in the sea; bombing, naval and anti-submarine aircraft flying long distances over water being much more common from the start of WWII. The [[PBY|PBY Catalina]] made by [[Consolidated Aircraft]] and [[Canadair]] seems to have been the first aeroplane to have had an inflatable life boat aboard, first as optional, later as standard equipment. A later version of that inflatable was pressurized by a gas cylinder rather than by mouth. A wire connected to the plane opened the cylinder valve in the inflatable after the life raft was thrown into the water. |
|||
Until the middle 1950s inflatables were still rafts in civilian use, hand paddled but the [[outboard motor]] came into use in the early 1950s. (The [[outboard motor]] was invented in 1909 by [[Ole Evinrude]].) |
|||
The period from the middle of the eleventh century to the middle of the fourteenth century is known as the 'High medieval' or 'scholastic' period. It is generally agreed to begin with Saint [[Anselm of Canterbury]] (1033-1109) an [[Italy|Italian]] [[philosopher]], [[theology|theologian]], and church official who is famous as the originator of the [[Anselm's argument|ontological argument]] for the existence of [[God]]. |
|||
[[Image:Plato Seneca Aristotle medieval.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Plato, Seneca, and Aristotle from ''Devotional and Philosophical Writings'', c. [[1330]]]] |
|||
The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally regarded as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Scholars such as [[Adelard of Bath]] travelled to Sicily and the Arab world, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid’s Elements.<ref>Clagett (1982), p. 356.</ref> Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.<ref>Lindberg (1978), p. 70-72.</ref> [[William of Moerbeke]]'s translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped in forming a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, and particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions they had previously relied on, and which had distorted or obscured the relation between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy.<ref>Fryde <!-- what is the complete title --></ref> His work formed the basis of the major commentaries that followed. |
|||
[[Image:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg|right|thumb|175px|[[Aquinas]]]] |
|||
The [[university| universities]] developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the [[Franciscans]] and the [[Dominican Order| Dominicans]]. The Franciscans were founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was [[Bonaventure]], a traditionalist who defended the theology of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and the philosophy of [[Plato]], incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements<ref>Hyman & Walsh, 'Bonaventura', p.454</ref>. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith. Other important Franciscan writers were [[Duns Scotus]], [[Peter Auriol]] and [[William of Ockham]]. |
|||
Also in the 1950s, the French Navy officer and biologist [[Alain Bombard]] was the first to combine the outboard engine, a rigid floor and a boat shaped inflatable. The former [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplane]]-manufacturer [[Zodiac Group|Zodiac]] built that boat and a friend of Bombard, the diver [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]] began to use it, after Bombard sailed across the Atlantic Ocean with his inflatable in 1952. Cousteau was convinced by the shallow draught and good performance of this type of boat and used it as tenders on his expeditions. |
|||
By contrast, the Dominican order, founded by [[St Dominic]] in 1215 placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East, and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were [[Albertus Magnus]] and (especially) [[Thomas Aquinas]], whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the [[Neoplatonism| Neoplatonic]] and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator [[Averroes]]. |
|||
The inflatable boat was so successful that Zodiac lacked the manufacturing capacity to satisfy demand. In the early 1960s, Zodiac licenced production to a dozen companies in other countries. In the 1960s, the British company Humber was the first to built Zodiac brand inflatable boats in the UK. |
|||
== Topics in Medieval Philosophy == |
|||
Some inflatables have inflated [[keel]]s whose V-shape help the hull move through waves reducing the slamming effect caused by the flat hull landing back on the surface the water after passing over the top of a wave at speed. |
|||
All the main branches of philosophy today (except possibly [[epistemology]]) were a part of Medieval philosophy. Medieval philosophy also included most of the areas originally established by the pagan philosophers of antiquity, particularly Aristotle. However, the discipline now called [[Philosophy of religion]] was probably a unique development of the medieval era, and many of the problems which define the subject first took shape in the Middle Ages, in forms which are still recognisable today. |
|||
== |
==Images== |
||
<gallery> |
|||
Image:Zodiac on the beach.jpg|A Zodiac boat on the beach |
|||
Image:Zodiac and a dog.jpg|A deployed Zodiac boat |
|||
Image:Hoisting a Zodiac.jpg|A Zodiac brand inflatable boat is hoisted aboard an expedition [[cruise ship]] in Antarctic waters after ferrying passengers to shore. |
|||
Image:inflatable.racing.arp.600pix.jpg|Offshore inflatable racing (Thundercat class) at Ilfracombe, north Devon, England. These boats can reach 100 km/h (60 mph). |
|||
Image:SeaEagleJump.jpg|A Sea Eagle inflatable jumping waves off the [[Hamptons]] |
|||
Image:Car carrying inflatable 3.JPG|An inflatable boat capable of carrying a car. |
|||
Image:Rubber boat summer sailing.jpg|Summer sailing in an inflatable boat. |
|||
</gallery> |
|||
== Rigid-hulled inflatable boat == |
|||
Medieval philosophy is characteristically theological. |
|||
The modern [[rigid-hulled inflatable boat]] (RIB) is a development of the inflatable boat which has a rigid floor and solid hull. The external shape of the hull lets it cut through waves more easily giving a more comfortable ride when travelling fast in rough conditions. The structure of the hull is capable of supporting a more powerful transom mounted [[outboard]] engine or even an inboard engine. |
|||
Some RIBs may be 14 metres (45 ft) in length and may include inboard steering, luxury features and full cabins. |
|||
* The problem of the compatibility of the divine attributes. Whether the attributes traditionally ascribed to the Supreme Being, such as unlimited power, knowledge of all things, infinite goodness, existence outside time, immateriality and so on, are logically consistent with one another |
|||
* The [[problem of evil]]. The classical philosophers had speculated on the nature of evil, but the problem of how an all-powerful, all-knowing and kind God could create a system of things in which evil existed, first arose in the medieval period. |
|||
* The [[problem of free will]]. A similar problem was to explain 'divine foreknowledge' - God's knowledge of what will happen in the future - is compatible with our belief in our own [[free will]]. |
|||
<References /> |
|||
=== Metaphysics === |
|||
[[Category:Boat types]] |
|||
[[cs:Raft]] |
|||
In metaphysics, the Middle Ages has a well deserved reputation for philosophical excellence. The problem of universals, for example, was one of the topics that were discussed at this time with a level of precision and rigor it would be hard to find matched before or since. But it was by no means the only such question. For some of the main topics in metaphysics on which medieval philosophers sharpened their wits, see the articles |
|||
[[da:Gummibåd]] |
|||
[[de:Schlauchboot]] |
|||
* [[Hylomorphism]] - development of the Aristotelian doctrine that individual things are a compound of material and form (the statue is a compound of granite, and the form sculpted into it) |
|||
[[fr:Canot pneumatique]] |
|||
* [[Existence]] - being qua being |
|||
[[it:Gommone]] |
|||
* The [[problem of universals]] |
|||
[[no:Gummibåt]] |
|||
* [[Causality ]] Consisting mostly of commentaries on Aristotle, mainly the [[Physics]], [[On the Heavens and the Earth]], [[On Generation and Corruption]]. Also uniquely medieval, since the rational investigation of the universe was viewed as a way of approaching God: For example, Duns Scotus' proof of the existence of God is based on the notion of causality. |
|||
[[fi:Kumivene]] |
|||
* Individuation |
|||
* Relations |
|||
John Buridan, John Duns Scotus, John Wyclif, Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas, and William of Ockham. |
|||
=== Natural philosophy === |
|||
In natural philosophy and philosophy of science, medieval philosophy was of course very strongly-but not exclusively-influenced by Aristotle. See, for example, the articles medieval theories of causality and Saint Thomas Aquinas. Particularly from the fourteenth century on, the increasing use of mathematical reasoning in natural philosophy would eventually pave the way for the rise of early modern science later on. Important figures in this development include William Heytesbury and William of Ockham. Other important contributors to medieval natural philosophy include Albert of Saxony, John Buridan and Nicholas of Autrecourt. Medieval epistemology was not, with some noteworthy exceptions, particularly worried over the problem of skepticism, over whether we have genuine knowledge. |
|||
=== Logic === |
|||
The great historian of logic I. M. Bochenski ([1961], pp. 10-18) remarked that the later Middle Ages was-along with the ancient period from roughly 350-200 BCE and the recent period from Boole and Peano on-one of the three great, original periods in the history of logic. Although we have learned much about the history of logic since Bochenski wrote, and although we can find individual notable figures in logic who fall outside any of his three great periods, his observation is still by and large correct. From the time of Abelard through at least the middle of the fourteenth century, if not later, the peculiarly medieval contributions to logic were developed and cultivated to a very high degree. It was no longer a matter of interpreting Aristotle, or commenting on the works of the "Old Logic" or the "New Logic"; wholly new genres of logical writing sprang up, and entirely new logical and semantic notions were developed. For logical developments in the Middle Ages, see the articles insolubles, literary forms of medieval philosophy, medieval semiotics, medieval theories of analogy, Medieval Theories of Demonstration, medieval theories of modality, medieval theories of Obligations, medieval theories: properties of terms, medieval theories of singular terms, medieval theories of the syllogism, and sophismata. For information on some contributors to medieval logic, see the articles Albert of Saxony, Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, John Buridan, John Wyclif, Johannes Sharpe, Paul of Venice, Peter Abelard, Peter of Spain, Richard Kilvington, Richard the Sophister, Walter Burley, William Heytesbury, and William of Ockham. |
|||
=== Philosophy of Mind === |
|||
The tendency was to take it for granted that we do, and instead to ask about how this comes about: what are the mechanisms of cognition, concept formation, etc. Medieval epistemology, therefore, typically shades into what we would nowadays call philosophical psychology or philosophy of mind; after the discovery in the Latin West of Aristotle's [[On the Soul]], it was regarded as a branch of the philosophy of nature. For some of the important topics discussed in the area of medieval epistemology, see the articles |
|||
* divine illumination Divine illumination is the oldest and most influential alternative to naturalism in the areas of mind and knowledge. The doctrine holds that human beings require a special divine assistance in their ordinary cognitive activities. Although most closely associated with Augustine and his scholastic followers, the doctrine has its origins in the ancient period and would reappear, transformed, in the early modern era. |
|||
* medieval theories of demonstration, |
|||
* mental representation in medieval philosophy. The idea that mental states have 'intentionality', i.e. despite being a state of the mind, they are able to represent things outside the mind, is and intrinsic and important component of the modern philosophy of mind. However it has its origins in medieval philosophy. Indeed the word 'intentionality' was revived by [[Franz Brentano]]. Ockham is well-known for his theory that language signifies mental states primarily by convention, real things secondarily, whereas the corresponding mental states signify real things of themselves and necessarily. Our idea of a rabbit necessarily represents a rabbit. A mental state 'is a true similitude of the external thing, on account of which it represents [repraesentat] the external thing itself, and stands for it from its nature, just as an utterance denotes things by institution'. |
|||
Writers in this area include [[Saint Augustine]], [[Duns Scotus]], [[Nicholas of Autrecourt]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], and [[William of Ockham]]. |
|||
=== Ethics === |
|||
For details on some important developments in medieval ethics, see the articles medieval |
|||
* theories of conscience, medieval |
|||
* practical reason, |
|||
* natural law tradition in ethics. |
|||
For some of the major contributors to medieval ethics, see the articles John Duns Scotus, Peter Abelard, Peter of Spain Saint Anselm, Saint Augustine, Saint Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham, elsewhere in this Encyclopedia. For some important figures in medieval political theory, see the articles Dante Alighieri, John Wyclif, and William of Ockham. |
|||
==See also== |
|||
*[[Christian philosophy]] |
|||
*[[Early Muslim philosophy]] |
|||
*[[Jewish philosophy]] |
|||
*[[Scholastic philosophy]] |
|||
*[[Renaissance of the 12th century]] |
|||
*[[Supposition Theory]] |
|||
==Notes== |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
==References== |
|||
*The [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ London Philosophy Study Guide] offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Medieval.htm Medieval Philosophy] |
|||
* Gallatin, H.K., [http://users.sbuniv.edu/~hgallatin/ht34632e18.html#res ''Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity''] |
|||
* Gracia, J.G. and Noone, T.B., ''A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', London 2003 |
|||
* Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J., ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'', Indianapolis 1973 |
|||
* Kretzmann, N. and Stump, E., ''The Cambridge Companion to Augustine '', Cambridge 2000. |
|||
* McGavin, J., [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DovTEDE3NZgC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=%22boethian+period%22&source=web&ots=2cFkPEdowr&sig=gksOjZWhOgpBxqdYVFPGpYvQ2SM&hl=en ''Chaucer and Dissimilarity: Literary Comparisons in Chaucer'']. |
|||
*Maurer, Armand A. [1982]. ''Medieval Philosophy''. 2nd ed. Toronto: [[Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies]]. |
|||
*Russell, B., ''History of Western Philosophy'', Routledge 1996 (originally published 1946) |
|||
*Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. [1996]. ''Readings in Medieval Philosophy''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. |
|||
==External links== |
|||
*[http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Topics.aspx?TopiCode=Medi Medieval Philosophy section at EpistemeLinks] |
|||
*[http://www2.bc.edu/~solere/siepm.html Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources] |
|||
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12025c.htm Article ''Philosophy'' at The Catholic Encyclopedia] |
|||
*[http://radicalacademy.com/adiphiljewish1.htm Some medieval Jewish philosophers] |
|||
*[http://jameshannam.com/medievalscience.htm Medieval Natural Philosophy and the Church] by James Hannam |
|||
*[http://tcrnews2.com/vonbalthasarfathers.html The Fathers, the Scholastics, and Ourselves by von Balthasar] |
|||
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: |
|||
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/medieval-literary/ Literary forms of Medieval Philosophy] |
|||
*[http://cip.cornell.edu/mpat Medieval Philosophy and Theology journal] |
|||
{{Medieval Philosophy}} |
|||
{{Middle Ages wide 2}} |
|||
{{Philosophy topics}} |
|||
[[Category:Western culture]] |
|||
[[Category:Medieval literature]] |
|||
[[Category:Medieval philosophy|!]] |
|||
[[ca:Filosofia medieval]] |
|||
[[cs:Středověká filosofie]] |
|||
[[da:Filosofi i middelalderen]] |
|||
[[de:Philosophie des Mittelalters]] |
|||
[[et:Keskaja filosoofia]] |
|||
[[es:Filosofía medieval]] |
|||
[[fa:فلسفه قرون وسطی]] |
|||
[[fr:Philosophie médiévale]] |
|||
[[hr:Srednjovjekovna filozofija]] |
|||
[[is:Miðaldaheimspeki]] |
|||
[[it:Filosofia medievale]] |
|||
[[he:פילוסופיית ימי הביניים]] |
|||
[[hu:Középkori filozófia]] |
|||
[[nl:Middeleeuwse filosofie]] |
|||
[[ja:中世哲学]] |
|||
[[pl:Filozofia średniowieczna]] |
|||
[[pt:Filosofia medieval]] |
|||
[[ru:Средневековая философия]] |
|||
[[sk:Stredoveká filozofia]] |
|||
[[sr:Средњовековна филозофија]] |
|||
[[fi:Keskiajan filosofia]] |
|||
[[sv:Medeltidens filosofi]] |
|||
[[tr:Orta Çağ felsefesi]] |
|||
Revision as of 09:45, 11 October 2008
 |
An inflatable boat is a lightweight boat constructed with its sides and bow made of flexible tubes containing pressurised gas. For smaller boats, the floor and hull beneath it is often flexible. On boats longer than 3 metres/10 feet, the floor often consists of three to five rigid plywood or aluminium sheets fixed between the tubes but not joined rigidly together. Often the transom is rigid, providing a location and structure for mounting an outboard motor.
Some inflatable boats have been designed to be disassembled and packed into in a small volume, so they can easily stored and transported to water when needed. This feature allows such boats to be used as liferafts for larger boats or aircraft, and for travel or recreational purposes.
Other terms for inflatable boats are "dinghy", "inflatable dinghy", "rubber dinghy" or "inflatable."
Types
Inflatable boats may have rubber floors, either plain or inflatable, or they may include steel, wood or aluminium sheets for rigidity. The tubes are made of rubberised, synthetic sheets of Hypalon or PVC to provide light-weight and secure buoyancy. The tubes are often constructed in separate sections, each with a valve to add or remove air, to reduce the effect of a puncture.
Some inflatable boats have an inflated keel to create a "groove" along the line of the hull improving the hull's wave cutting and turning performance. Due to the lightness, it is easy to cause an inflatable boat to start hydroplaning, thus making it faster than the engine would allow when the hull is operating in displacement mode.
A growing use for inflatables is for white water rafting and kayaking, as well as in river, lake and ocean touring. Professional-level rafts and kayaks have existed for many years; since the late 1990s, more affordable inflatable rafts, kayaks (including sea kayaks) and canoes have been developed by European and North American companies. Typically these inflatable boats contain no rigid frame members, so they can be deflated, folded and stored in compact bags.
Repairing
Should a section puncture it can be repaired while still underway. More extensive inflatable boat repairs - due to pinholes, punctures, peeling, leaks or worn fabric - can be done in dry dock using two-stage synthetic rubber coatings (SRC).
Subject to a great deal of wear and tear from the elements - both water and sun - inflatable boats are often replaced when they could be restored or even repaired. Products that aggressively adhere to the damaged Hypalon or PVC shell can fix virtually any surface damage through a unique chemical bonding between the undercoat and topcoat that permanently vulcanizes the two rubber coatings together to make the inflatable as good as new. However since the Hypalon material increases the cost of the inflatable up to 15% not all manufactures provide the option. Some, such as the Brig and the Zodiac brand inflatable boat offer the option between the PVC or the Hypalon which is recommended for environments of increase heat and sunlight.
Uses
Inflatables are commonly between 2 and 7 metres (6 to 21 feet) long and are propelled by outboard motors of 5 to 80 horsepower (4 to 60 kW). Due to their speed, portability and weight, inflatable boats are used as:-
- rescue craft
- dive boats for scuba diving
- tenders for larger boats and ships in port and at sea
- luxury yacht tenders
- recreational water skiing
- for racing
- commercial or recreational fishing
- for military purposes, such as transporting soldiers from a vessel to shore
Inflatables up to 6 metres in length can be towed on trailers on the road.
These boats are often used by special-operations units of the armed forces of several nations, for such purposes as landing on beaches or submarines. They have also be used by special operations soldiers without government sponsorship, such as guerrillas, pirates, and terrorists.
History
Early attempts
There are ancient carved images of animal skins filled with air being used as one-man floats to cross rivers. They were inflated by mouth. Sometimes these images have been wrongly described as ancient scuba.
In 1839 the Duke of Wellington tested the first inflatable pontoons.
Rubber arrives
In 1900 to 1910 the development of rubber manufacturing enabled attempts at producing circular rubber inflatable boats: similar to modern coracles. These were only usable as rafts and could be propelled only by paddling, and they tended to crack at seams and folds due to imperfect manufacture of the rubber.
Titanic and WWI
With the loss of the Titanic in 1912, and World War I losses of ships to submarine-launched torpedoes, the need for inflatable boats was plain.
One cause of the loss of life on the Titanic was the lack of lifeboats. Even if every lifeboat had been completely filled with passengers and crew, there would have been no way to rescue more than half of all the people on board. The first SOLAS treaty was designed to avoid such a disaster happening again. One of its provisions was to ensure that vessels had enough lifeboats to provide every person aboard the vessel with a place. Putting this rule into effect was not difficult with cargo ships: they had small crews and plenty of deck space. Passenger ships had to stack lifeboats on top of each other to able to carry enough to accommodate the large number of passengers and crew. Warships also had large crews and little deck space.
Between the two World Wars, Goodyear found a way to join rubber to other materials. They made life rafts of square-shaped inflated rubber tubes with a rigid floor. Such rafts were to be stacked vertically aboard warships, usually standing on deck and leaning against deck-houses. But conservative thinking from navies held back this new idea.
Pierre Debroutelle's 1937 design was the first known to have its inflatable tube in a U-shape. It was the first boat of its kind to be certified by the French Navy. Its added wooden transom was patented on 10 August 1943. This version was the predecessor of today's inflatable sports and pleasure boats.
World War II
World War II changed everything. Submarine warfare in the Battle of the Atlantic led to casualties among warships and merchant ships. US warships began using rubber life rafts. Since the rubber was much higher quality than 35 years before, the inflatable returned, but this time it was boat-shaped.
In military use inflatable boats were used to transport torpedoes and other cargo. They also allowed troops to make landings in shallow water, and their compact size and storability made overland transport possible.
One of the models, the Zodiac brand inflatable boat, grew to be popular with the military and contributed significantly to the rise of the civilian inflatable boat industry, both in Europe and in the United States. After World War II, surplus inflatable boats were sold to the public. A version of this boat has been adapted by the Marine Mammal Center for use in rescuing injured marine mammals at sea.
Modern inflatables
Inflatable liferafts were also used successfully to save crews of aircraft that ditched in the sea; bombing, naval and anti-submarine aircraft flying long distances over water being much more common from the start of WWII. The PBY Catalina made by Consolidated Aircraft and Canadair seems to have been the first aeroplane to have had an inflatable life boat aboard, first as optional, later as standard equipment. A later version of that inflatable was pressurized by a gas cylinder rather than by mouth. A wire connected to the plane opened the cylinder valve in the inflatable after the life raft was thrown into the water.
Until the middle 1950s inflatables were still rafts in civilian use, hand paddled but the outboard motor came into use in the early 1950s. (The outboard motor was invented in 1909 by Ole Evinrude.)
Also in the 1950s, the French Navy officer and biologist Alain Bombard was the first to combine the outboard engine, a rigid floor and a boat shaped inflatable. The former airplane-manufacturer Zodiac built that boat and a friend of Bombard, the diver Jacques-Yves Cousteau began to use it, after Bombard sailed across the Atlantic Ocean with his inflatable in 1952. Cousteau was convinced by the shallow draught and good performance of this type of boat and used it as tenders on his expeditions.
The inflatable boat was so successful that Zodiac lacked the manufacturing capacity to satisfy demand. In the early 1960s, Zodiac licenced production to a dozen companies in other countries. In the 1960s, the British company Humber was the first to built Zodiac brand inflatable boats in the UK.
Some inflatables have inflated keels whose V-shape help the hull move through waves reducing the slamming effect caused by the flat hull landing back on the surface the water after passing over the top of a wave at speed.
Images
-
A Zodiac boat on the beach -
A deployed Zodiac boat -
A Zodiac brand inflatable boat is hoisted aboard an expedition cruise ship in Antarctic waters after ferrying passengers to shore. -
Offshore inflatable racing (Thundercat class) at Ilfracombe, north Devon, England. These boats can reach 100 km/h (60 mph). -
A Sea Eagle inflatable jumping waves off the Hamptons -
An inflatable boat capable of carrying a car. -
Summer sailing in an inflatable boat.
Rigid-hulled inflatable boat
The modern rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RIB) is a development of the inflatable boat which has a rigid floor and solid hull. The external shape of the hull lets it cut through waves more easily giving a more comfortable ride when travelling fast in rough conditions. The structure of the hull is capable of supporting a more powerful transom mounted outboard engine or even an inboard engine.
Some RIBs may be 14 metres (45 ft) in length and may include inboard steering, luxury features and full cabins.